The historical course of museums in Greece

Disclaimer

The article below was originally written as an undergraduate assignment for the Greek Open University in 2008, during a period when the author’s academic skills were still developing. Although the quality of this article does not match that of later examples of the same author’s work, it is written in a thorough manner and contains useful information for students and other readers with non-specialised knowledge; therefore, it has been proudly included on this website.

The reader needs to be warned that the original assignment, on which this article was based, was written in Greek and was intended to be read by specialised academics. Despite the author’s best intentions to present his essay in the clearest way possible, some points and arguments might still be lost in translation. The author recommends that readers consult the web for additional information on any unfamiliar words or specialised vocabulary.

The author admits that the bibliography for this article is limited, as required for an undergraduate assignment of this level. The author did not include any additional bibliography during the translation of his work into English due to time and access limitations. It must also be noted that the original bibliography for this article was studied from translated copies in Greek; therefore, the page numbers suggested in the citations below match the page numbers of the translated copies and not the original volumes.

Introduction

This article discusses the foundation and historical evolution of archaeological museums in Greece. The paper is divided into four sections. The first section introduces the modern definition of a museum, as defined by international organisations promoting culture, focusing on its purposes, means, and functions. The second section introduces a brief overview of the historical course of museums from antiquity to the present day. It provides a brief comparison of the evolution of the museum institution in Europe and Greece. The third section discusses the main functions of modern museums based on their management and organisation principles. It briefly explains their aims and objectives, as well as the contribution of modern museums to society. The final section summarises some key points of the above discussions.

The definition of a museum

Although there have been private and public artefact collections recorded throughout human history, the first attempt to define the museum as a social institution was during the 1960s by UNESCO (United Nations Educational, Scientific and Cultural Organisation) and ICOM (International Council of Museums) (Voudouri 2003, 89-90). Since then, local governments have produced legislation to regulate the foundation and management principles of museums, which share a common philosophy.

According to the latest ICOM Articles of Association, adopted in The Hague in 1989, a museum is a permanent, non-profit institution open to the broader public and serving the interests of society. A museum is formed to obtain, maintain, conserve, study, publish, and exhibit human and natural evidence for research, education, and public entertainment. This definition expands the typical notion of a modern museum and introduces new museum types, such as conservation institutes, galleries, natural landscapes, botanic gardens, zoos, aquariums, national parks, research centres, planetariums, etc. This broader definition represents a recent shift in the understanding of a museum: in the modern world, a museum is not defined by its collections, but by its aims and functions (Voudouri 2003, 90-1).

Nowadays, a museum is no longer a building for the safekeeping of collections; instead, it is an institution that plays a complex scientific, cultural, educational, social, and developmental role. The functions of modern museums are no longer limited to storing various objects, but also include the conservation of the collections, their interpretation and their promotion to the broader public through exhibitions; finally, they promote the study of such collections, including their interpretation and integration into education (Voudouri 2003, 91-2).

The institution’s historical course

The earliest historical mention of a museum dates to the Hellenistic period. In fact, the name refers to a place dedicated to the Muses. The Museum of Alexandria was founded in 290 B.C. by Ptolemy I Saviour. The museum consisted of various collections, although its primary focus was scientific research and the transmission of knowledge. In this sense, the aims and objectives of the ancient Museum of Alexandria were similar to those of modern museums, which are defined as research and education institutions (Gazi 2003, 144-55).

Going a little earlier, during the Classical period, collections of artefacts were kept in Treasuries in sacred locations, such as the Pan-Hellenic sanctuaries of Delphi and Delos, or in public buildings, such as the Propylaea gallery on the Athenian Acropolis. Such collections, particularly when exhibited in Pan-Hellenic sanctuaries, promoted the wealth and the reputation of their patron city-states. It can be argued that prestige object collections were an expression of ‘national’ pride for the Greek city-states (Gazi 2003, 144-55).

After the end of Classical antiquity, private artefact collections continued during the Hellenistic, Roman and Byzantine periods. Renowned private collections belonged to the Attalid Dynasty in Pergamon, Herodes Atticus in Athens and Lausus in 5th-century AD Constantinople. Private artefact collections were built for a number of reasons, such as the appreciation of art and its aesthetics; the decoration of private residences and the display of political power, wealth and social prestige (Gazi 2003, 144-55).

According to Susan Pearce (1992; 1995), the appearance of museums in Europe began during the medieval period, which she describes as the ‘archaic’ phase of European museums. This period was characterised by ecclesiastical collections accessible to all Christian believers. Such collections consisted of diverse objects that visitors admired and often worshipped for their miraculous healing properties.

The first private museums in Europe appeared in Italy during the 15th century. These had two basic names: the term ‘galleria’ was used for collections of paintings and sculpture, while the term ‘gabinetto’ was used for collections of stuffed animals, botanical species, peculiar or ‘exotic’ objects, etc. The development of private collections was an aristocratic hobby, and the public had no access to them. The term museum first appeared in the 16th century, referring to the collections of Lorenzo the Magnificent (Lorenzo di Piero de’ Medici). During the 17th and 18th centuries, which mark the early modern period, private collections of peculiar objects known as ‘cabinets des curiosites’ became popular among the European elites. At the same time, the Enlightenment introduced new scientific methods for the study of the natural universe, which later expanded to encompass existing collections. It was the time when artefacts started to be systematically classified. Manuals on the classification and the curation of collections began to be published, and the development of artefact collections slowly became a conscious process (Gazi 2003, 136-8).

The ‘modern’ period of European museums began in the 18th century and lasted until circa 1950, marking the beginning of the ‘post-modern’ period (Pearce 1992; 1995). The most characteristic feature of the ‘modern’ period was a change in the institution’s philosophy: museums became public and aimed at addressing the interests of the broader public. Museums stopped focusing on the storage and presentation of peculiar objects and turned towards the study of artefacts and the promotion of education. Large national museums, such as the Louvre in Paris and the British Museum in London, were founded straight from the beginning as state institutions.

The 19th century was dominated by the views and ideas of Romanticism, which was also associated with national liberation movements. Within this climate of rising Nationalism, museums became the guardians of national folk traditions and national folk identity. From the mid-19th century onwards, museums developed a new interest in preserving the recent past, leading to the foundation of the first folk museums, such as the Skansen Museet in Sweden (Gazi 2003, 138-41).

During the 20th century, the Swedish folk museum example expanded further, leading to the development of open-air museums. These were large plots of land that included representations of entire buildings, equipped with old furniture, machinery, and everyday items from older rural communities. The first open-air museums preserved the memories of ‘life in the recent past’, which contrasted with the modern urban and industrial reality. Another interesting trend of the 1960s was the emergence of eco-museums. Such establishments used to be the size of settlements that incorporated the economic and social activities of a broader region. Such museums can nowadays be described as ‘live’ museums, as the inhabitants of a certain region can actively participate in the museum’s functions and be part of its infrastructure. Another 20th-century trend was the development of pre-industrial museums, which still exhibit artefacts, tools, machinery, and even the lives of entire communities from the pre-industrial period (e.g., the Ironbridge Museum in Britain). Alongside such institutions, there was an increasing interest in the development of technology and natural science museums (Gazi 2003, 138-41).

The evolution of European museums was not only about the exhibition of specific collections, but also about their architecture and external design. During the 19th century, museum buildings were designed solely for the housing of artefact collections, often following the architectural conventions of Classicism and Romanticism. Such museums had an elongated rectangular plan; they consisted of large interconnected halls (galleries) with Classic-style decoration (e.g. ‘ancient’ columns), which obliged the visitors to follow a specific route. A typical example of such a museum is the Altes Museum in Berlin. The shift towards Modernism in 20th-century architecture enabled the construction of museums with modern design and relatively random hall layouts, allowing visitors to choose their own route. After the mid-20th century, under the influence of museology and Post-Modernity in architecture, museums became more ‘productive’, meeting the requirements of the tourism industry. Museum buildings were designed to be part of the broader museum experience offered to the public, alongside their artefacts. An example of such a museum is the Centre Pompidou in Paris (Tzonos 2007, 32-58).

The first foundations of museums in Greece date to the 19th century; they were connected to the newly founded nation-state’s attempt to preserve ancient Greek antiquities as symbols of national identity, sovereignty, and pride. All Greek museums were state-founded archaeological museums, open to the broader public. Their initial aim was the safekeeping of artefact collections; however, when this approach changed, their aim became public education and the promotion of Greek archaeology and Classical arts. The first Antiquities Legislation, which also regulated the functions of Greek museums, was passed in 1834. Still, the first archaeological collections in the newly-founded Greek state were housed in facilities that were not originally designed to serve as museums. These were usually churches in Athens and the periphery, the ancient temple of Hephaestus in Theseion, the Turkish baths in Athens’ Roman Agora and other historical locations. The first building, designed from the beginning to be a museum, was built on the Athenian Acropolis in 1864. As archaeological excavations increased, the ‘early’ Acropolis Museum proved inadequate to host large collections of artefacts (Voudouri 2003, 81-6; Gazi 1999, 43-6).

The National Archaeological Museum of Athens was built towards the end of the 19th century, along with other secondary peripheral museums, such as those in Sparta, Olympia, Aegina and Syros. The main thing these museums had in common was their architecture, which followed the conventions of 19th-century Classicism. All Greek museums of the late 19th century were exclusively archaeological due to the political and ideological circumstances of the time; furthermore, these museums are still used today to host archaeological collections with little modification to their original plans. Except for state-founded museums, the Archaeological Fellowship played a crucial role in the foundation of new museums in Greece, as did private individuals, who either contributed their private collections to state museums or supported them with generous donations (Voudouri 2003, 81-6; Gazi 1999, 43-6).

Interest in Byzantine cultural heritage expanded during the mid-19th century for ideological reasons: to include Byzantium within the sphere of Greek culture. This ideological quest argued for the cultural continuity of the Greeks in the Balkans over the preceding centuries. The cultural and historical continuity of the Greeks in this geographical space was, at the time, challenged by Historicism and the theories of Jakob Philipp Fallmerayer (1790-1861). A similar ideological necessity fostered an interest in the most recent Greek past, leading to the foundation of the first folk museums in the early 20th century. Such museums were also known as ethnographic or ‘laographic’ museums (Voudouri 2003, 81-6; Gazi 1999, 43-6).

The development of Greek museums lagged slightly behind that of the rest of the continent. The simplistic exhibition of artefacts based on specific ideological perceptions was only abandoned towards the end of the 20th century. The modernisation of Greek museums was enhanced by the involvement of private funding bodies in museum management (e.g. banks and other financial institutions); the involvement of the broader public in accessing museum collections for study purposes; the latest technological developments of the preceding decades; and finally, the regulation of specific operation guidelines for museums by the Greek government (Voudouri 2003, 81-6; Gazi 1999, 43-6).

Basic functions of modern museums

According to the ICOM definition, modern museums are still expected to perform their traditional role, which is the collection, documentation, curation, preservation and exhibition of artefacts; furthermore, they are expected to perform new roles, which enhance the relationship between a museum and the broader public (e.g. research, education, entertainment). Their most recent role is maintaining a balance between government regulations and private initiatives; this balance is nowadays challenged by the development of private artefact collections for commercial purposes.

In relation to their traditional role, museums mediate the acquisition of collections, which usually consist of items excavated, purchased, borrowed, or donated by private collectors or other private bodies. The process of obtaining such artefacts is subject to specific legal requirements, but is more often constrained by financial limitations. The selection of museum artefacts is either determined by the requirements of specific exhibitions or by artefact classifications. In the second case, the artefacts are split into categories according to their typological characteristics or their internal relationships (Nousia 2003, 43-55).

The study of exhibited artefacts and the promotion of research are the most important functions of modern museums. Research includes the study of artefacts’ context and their associations with other classified artefacts, using a systematic scientific methodology. Detailed documentation of the artefacts includes recording all relevant information and other data that can be extracted after detailed analysis. The documentation of museum artefacts follows six steps established by the International Council of Museums (ICOM) and the International Committee for Documentation (CIDOC). These are the initial registration of the artefact in the entry book; the official registration of the artefact in the item’s registry; the recording of information on various information sheets; the indexing of the artefact in the index book; the recording of any transfers of artefacts; and finally, the exit-registration in case artefacts are moved outside the museum (Nousia 2003, 43-55).

The curation and protection of museum artefacts require a safe exhibition environment, which includes showcases with controlled lighting and temperature and humidity conditions. Furthermore, the safekeeping of the artefacts is ensured by trained conservators employed by the museums. The conservators make sure that artefacts are properly preserved. The conservation process includes small interventions to consolidate and clean artefacts, or their restoration if they have suffered natural wear or intentional destruction. Conservators also follow scientific research methodologies, which offer important information on artefact dating, material composition and natural decay, aiming to prevent further damage in the near future (Nousia 2003, 42-55).

In addition to the above roles undertaken by modern museums, there is nowadays an increasing need for public engagement. This includes the public’s participation in education services, entertainment, fundraising, museum activities and the broader promotion of material culture. Modern museums are gradually disengaging from the exhibition of ‘traditional’ permanent collections. They often present ‘super-shows’ featuring combined collections; introduce the public to new cultural tendencies or artistic movements; and, finally, promote exhibitions for profit or to highlight specific political agendas. The role of digital technologies in modern museums is increasingly important in promoting knowledge. Digital technologies are used to offer a customised learning experience, which acknowledges the importance of interactive learning in modern education. At the same time, modern museums emphasise their recreational services by incorporating restaurants, shops, cafeterias, and reception halls into their facilities, enabling the organisation of large events. The investment in such recreation services strengthens the museums’ social role and improves their funding potential (Voudouri 2003, 60-1).

The increasing spread of private museums in the modern world has highlighted the need for a mutually agreed legal framework, set by governments, to regulate museum activities, management, operational rules, and safety requirements. The first legal framework for regulating private museums was introduced in the United States in 1970. This legislation made state certification compulsory for all private museums, requiring them to demonstrate compliance with specific operational and performance standards. The requirement for state certification of private museums was introduced in Europe during the 1980s; however, the situation in Greece remains problematic. For example, there are occasions when a private collector can ‘legalise’ a collection and retain it in the form of a ‘private museum’, though not necessarily accessible to the broader public. Certain rules and requirements for such collections are partially addressed by the most recent archaeological act, the Archaeological Law 3038/2002. According to this act, the regulation of private collections, the suitability of building installations and the scientific competence of staff for managing private collections is determined by the Ministry of Culture; however, until nowadays, there is no standard specification framework for private museums, such as the one used in the United States (Gazi 2003, 5-6).

Final summary

According to the ICOM definition, a museum is a permanent, non-profit institution which is open to the broader public. A museum aims to obtain, publish, exhibit, curate, and research environmental or human-related material testimonies for research, education, and entertainment.

The term ‘museum’ was first introduced during Greek antiquity; however, when discussing ‘museums’ before the 18th century, it is more accurate to define them as private collections of artefacts built by prestigious aristocrats to promote their social status. What we nowadays define as an institutionalised museum was first introduced in Europe during the 18th century.

The first modern museums were public institutions that participated in education, aiming to preserve cultural heritage and the national identity of modern states. A by-product of this activity was the documentation and research of specific artefact collections. The first museums in the newly-founded Greek state were exclusively archaeological, government-funded, open to the public and built to protect and promote the cultural heritage of the Greeks. The ideas of 19th-century Romanticism played an important role in the establishment of state museums, which were influenced by its aesthetics and ideological content. The 20th century introduced a different approach in relation to museum collections. Folk, technological, environmental and other types of museums were established in Europe, and research was promoted at a scientific level. The buildings of many 20th-century museums were influenced by new architectural trends and by Postmodernism. Furthermore, eco-museums and open-air museums appeared for the first time in Europe, which, unfortunately, have not yet been introduced in Greece. Since the beginning of the 20th century, museums have been active education and research institutions. Interestingly, this role was originally attributed to the Museum of Alexandria during the Hellenistic period, but was unfortunately forgotten for centuries.

In relation to their basic functions, modern museums have been serving their traditional role of acquiring, cataloguing, and exhibiting artefact collections, as well as studying, documenting, preserving, curating, conserving, and restoring such artefacts. More recently, museums are expected to engage with the broader public, either by hosting large exhibitions or by using new technologies to transform their existing collections into interactive, educational, and recreational experiences.

Due to the impact of private museums from the 1970s onward, governments have established specific legal frameworks and state certifications to supervise museum operations and service quality. In Greece, the latest legal framework, the Archaeological Law 3028/2002, introduces guidelines for all Greek museums; however, more needs to be done.

Bibliography

Gazi, A., 1999, “From the Mouses to the museum. The history of an institution through the centuries”, Archaeology and Arts, 70, 39-46.
Gazi, A., 2003, “Museum collections in Greece from antiquity till present”, in Papagiannopoulou, A. (ed.) Archaeology in Greece, Volume III, Museology, Antiquities’ Curation, Patra: Greek Open University, 125-237.
Gazi, A., 2004, ‘Museums for the 21st century’, Museology Notebooks (1), 4-12.
Nousia, T., 2003, ‘Collection management of museum objects’, in Papagiannopoulou, A. (ed.) Archaeology in Greece, Volume III, Museology, Antiquities’ Curation, Patra: Greek Open University, 39-58.
Pearce, S., 1992, Museum Objects and Collections. A Cultural Study, Leicester: Leicester University Press.
Pearce, S., 1995, On Collecting. An Investigation into Collecting in the European Tradition, London: Routledge.
Tzonos, P., 2007, Museums and Modernity, Athens: Papasotiriou.
Voudouri, D., 2003, State and Museums. The Institutional Framework of Archaeological Museums, Athens and Thessaloniki: Sakkoulas.