The cultural characteristics of Bronze Age Greece

Disclaimer

The article below was originally written in the form of an undergraduate assignment for the Greek Open University in 2008, during a period when the author's academic skills were still under development. Although the quality of this article does not match the quality of later examples of the same author's work, it is written in a thorough manner and contains useful information to nowadays students and other readers with non-specialised knowledge; therefore, it has been proudly included on this website.

The reader needs to be warned that the original assignment, on which this article was based on, was written in Greek and was intended to be read by specialised academics. Despite the author's best intentions to present his essay in the clearest way possible, some points and arguments might still be lost in translation. The author recommends that for any unknown words or specialised vocabulary, the readers should refer to the web for additional information.

The author admits that the bibliography for this article is limited, not even matching the requirements of an undergraduate assignment of this level. The author did not include any additional bibliography during the translation of his work in English due to time and access limitations. In 2008 this paper was only meant to provide a brief overview on the Greek Bronze Age; nowadays, some of its information is likely to be out of date and the bibliography is most likely inadequate for further academic use.

Introduction

This article briefly discusses the cultural characteristics of the Greek Bronze Age in relation to four major cultures, which were active in the Aegean during the above period. These were the Minoan culture, the Cycladic culture, the Helladic culture and the North-Eastern Aegean culture. The paper is divided in four sections, which discuss spatial organisation and architecture, daily activities and economy, social organisation and mortuary practices. The discussion in each section is further sub-divided in relation to the three phases of the Greek Bronze Age: Early (c. 3000-2000 BC), Middle (c. 2000-1600 BC) and Late (c. 1600-1100 BC).

It must be noted that these three phases are conventional and their duration is not the same across all four cultural groups; however, this broader division allows cross-cultural comparisons, which is the main focus of this paper. A disadvantage of this specific approach is that the chronological subdivisions for each culture are only mentioned according to their conventional names and are not presented in absolute dates.

1. Spatial organisation and architecture

1.1. Early Bronze Age

The first signs of early ‘urbanisation’ in the Aegean appear in the Early Bronze Age. In the Greek Mainland there appear large settlements, such as Tiryns, Thebes, Eutrisi and Manika, which are characterised by an early form of urban planning, dense construction activity and utility structures, such as paved roads and fortifications (Pyrgaki 2002, 81). In Early Bronze Age Crete, there appear pre-urban settlements and by the end of the period, these are over 100 and host a total of almost 75,000 inhabitants (Pyrgaki 2002, 83). The largest-scale ‘urbanisation’ in noted in the Cyclades during the Early Cycladic II period. Due to the rapid developments in naval commerce, coastline citadels are gradually converted to important pre-urban ports (Pyrgaki 2002, 86-7). A different and highly advanced form of early ‘urbanisation’ is noted in the North-Eastern Aegean culture. The town of Poliochne in Lemnos is equipped with impressive public buildings, such as the ‘vouleuterion’, which is a place of group gatherings, and the ‘granary’, which is a storage building for agricultural surplus (Pyrgaki 2002, 88-9).

1.2 Middle Bronze Age

During the Middle Bronze Age, settlements in Mainland Greece become larger compared to the earlier settlements; however, they cannot be called ‘towns’ as they still maintain the size of extended citadels. Middle Helladic private residences have the form of early megaron-style structures. They consist of an entrance lobby connected with a main hall, leading to a rear arched wall (Pyrgaki 2002, 95). In the Cyclades, earlier settlements are gathered together in a central location, which has the form of a proper town with defence fortifications, urban planning and dense habitation areas. In the towns of Agia Eireni in Kea and Phylakopi in Melos there are blocks of small residences with partitions, which are divided by narrow paved streets without open spaces. The residences are plain rectangular, with one, two or three rooms (Pyrgaki 2002, 96-7). Middle Bronze Age Crete shows important developments in ‘urbanisation’, which coincide with the first appearance of Minoan palaces circa 1900 BC. These complex palatial structures are placed on top of small hills and offer simultaneous access to the sea and the nearby cultivated plains. This is noted in the four largest palatial cities of Knossos, Malia, Zakros and Phaestos. Middle Minoan palaces consist of multi-storey residences, workshops, large storage rooms, religious facilities, large reception halls and courtyards, often used for religious ceremonies and public shows. Residences are built around a central Minoan palace, which forms the settlement’s core. Advanced building techniques for multi-storey buildings are not only used for the construction of palaces, but also for luxurious private residences (Pyrgaki 2002, 98).

1.3 Late Bronze Age

During the Late Cycladic period there is increasing fortification works around citadels, although settlement planning differs little compared to the Middle Cycladic period. In architecture, there appear many foreign ‘influences’, mostly Minoan during the Late Cycladic I and II periods (e.g. the Akrotiri settlement in Thera), while the Late Cycladic III period is characterised by distinct Mycenaean architecture (Pyrgaki 2002, 105-7). After the destruction of the old palaces c. 1700 BC in Crete, new palaces are build in the same locations after previous debris has been thoroughly removed. Population increase is likely to coincide with settlement expansion around major Minoan palaces, such as Knossos, Phaestos, Malia and Zakros. There appear new types of buildings, such as villas, small palaces and rural mansions, which associate with the countryside surrounding the main palaces (Pyrgaki 2002, 108-9). The largest palatial complex in Late Bronze Age Crete is undoubtedly Knossos: during its most extensive phase, it consists of over 1300 rooms spread across five floors; the palatial complex also includes running water installations, paved courtyards, monumental entrances and a ‘theatre’ (Pyrgaki 2002, 112-3). In Mainland Greece, most of the available information relates to the Late Helladic III period, which marks the peak of the Mycenaean palatial system. During the Mycenaean era, monumental palaces are built on top of heavily fortified hills (Acropoleis). Mycenaean towns, such as Gla, Tiryns and Mycenae are surrounded by ‘Cyclopean’ walls with imposing and elaborately decorated gates (e.g. The Lions’ Gate in Mycenae). Based on their design, Mycenaean palaces are administrative centres built on strategic locations, connected together by an advanced system of roads and other land-transportation networks (Pyrgaki 2002, 116-7).

2. Daily Activities and economy

2.1 Early Bronze Age

During the Early Helladic period, Mainland Greece is characterised by the extensive exploitation of cultivated land, with a preference in olive trees and vineyards. The use of ploughs brings the gradual exploitation of larger agricultural areas; as production grows, agricultural surplus is stored in large granaries. The broader division of labour is characterised by specialisation and advanced technological knowledge. The use of the potter’s wheel introduces standardisation in ceramic production. Finally, there is an early form of exchange economy, which is characterised by the regulation of raw materials and the distribution of production surplus (Pyrgaki 2002, 81-2). Early Bronze Age Crete is characterised by strong naval trade, which primarily focuses on copper and tin resources for the increasing needs of the island’s thriving metallurgy. Apart from trade, the inhabitants of Crete develop a network of commercial and cultural contacts with the Cyclades and Egypt. The knowledge for the production of stone containers is most likely due to their contacts with the latter (Pyrgaki 2002, 85). The problem of food supply in Early Bronze Age Cyclades, which is due to the non-existence of adequate cultivated lands, is resolved through naval trade. The inhabitants of the Cycladic islands exploit their rich mineral resources (e.g. obsidian from Melos and emery from Naxos) and trade them for metals and foodstuffs from nearby regions. The necessity for a successful naval trade forces advances in ship-building and seafaring, as well as the acquisition of knowledge in relation to navigation. The latter includes the study of start positioning during different seasons, which makes ship navigation possible during the night (Pyrgaki 2002, 87). During the Early Bronze Age, the economy of the North-Eastern Aegean islands is remarkable. Such islands combine fertile lands with rich agriculture and natural ports at privileged locations for the conduction of naval trade. Lemnos, in particular, is a pioneering island in relation to metallurgy. Archaeology has revealed copper and bronze processing facilities with advanced metallurgy tools (e.g. hoppers, dies and hammers) and advanced metal-casting techniques (e.g. wax pouring). Lemnos maintains frequent commercial contacts with the neighbouring Asia Minor and many other Aegean islands. Furthermore, its supply network reaches as far as Afghanistan, which has been shown after trace element analyses on copper and tin resources from Poliochne (Pyrgaki 2002, 88-9).

2.2 Middle Bronze Age

During the Middle Bronze Age, Mainland Greece undergoes a phase of decline, which associates with a drop in the population’s living standards. Naval trade declines and there is a shift towards land transportations and trade, supported by an extensive road network. Civilisation falls back; there is a tendency towards artistic isolation and standardisation prevails in the production of material culture (Pyrgaki 2002, 96). During the Middle Bronze Age, the Cycladic islands restore contacts with Crete and Mainland Greece. This is attested by numerous exports of Minyan Middle Cycladic Black-Glazed wares, which are recovered in both Crete and the Peloponnese. It is a wealthy phase, which is characterised by specialisation and mass production of material culture (Pyrgaki 2002, 97). After the rise of the first palaces, Crete consolidates a system of centralised economy. This is supported by sophisticated palatial bureaucracy and other regulative mechanisms set by the central government. Middle Bronze Age art in Crete is characterised by developments in gold smithing, jewellery production, sculpture and ceramic production. In relation to the latter, Eggshell Wares and Kamara Wares become the island’s most famous exports (Pyrgaki 2002, 99).

2.3 Late Bronze Age

In the Late Bronze Age, there is a sudden interruption of economic activity in the Cyclades and a steep decline in the production of material culture due to natural catastrophes. The settlement of Akrotiri is destroyed by an earthquake during the 18th century BC; activities recover, but the settlement is finally abandoned after the eruption of the Thera volcano circa 1550 BC. Regarding the chronology of the eruption, there is almost a century bias due to the use of different dating techniques (radiocarbon as opposed to ceramic seriation); still, the end of the Akrotiti settlement is firmly placed during the early phases of the Late Bronze Age. From the Late Cycladic II period onwards, the Cyclades lose their autonomous cultural identity and fall under the Mycenaean sphere of influence (Pyrgaki 2002, 106-7). In Late Bronze Age Crete, the Neo-Palatial system is at its peak. All types of production are centralised and controlled by a strong and highly developed bureaucratic mechanism. This allows the Cretans, or the Keftou as they are noted in Egyptian Late Bronze Age scripts, to expand throughout the Eastern Mediterranean basin. They found commercial stations and colonies from the island of Kythera to the island of Rhodes and the nearby Asia-Minor coasts. Furthermore, they maintain frequent contacts with Syria and Egypt due to transit trade. Cretan expansion reaches as far as Sardinia and the Italian coastline, while Cretan metric standards dominate in Eastern Mediterranean trade (Pyrgaki 2002, 110-11). The Late Helladic period is also known as the era of the Mycenaean civilisation. This cultural group flourishes in the Peloponnese and introduces a centralised economic system, where the production and distribution of goods is exclusively controlled by a central authority. During this period, Cretan imports reach the Peloponnese via Kythera and frequent trading contacts are established with the Middle East, Egypt and North Europe. Such contacts allow the Mycenaeans to access valuable commodities, such as amber from the Baltic Sea, ivory from Africa and tin from various regions, one possibly located in modern Cornwall. Trade is also likely to have been conducted via a network of middle parties, most likely seafarers and merchants from Crete. Mycenaean exports of the Late Helladic II period suggest advanced international trade under palatial control. The Mycenaeans trade their own agricultural products for raw materials, metals, luxury goods and various other commodities. One of the most important partners of Mycenaean trade is Cyprus, which they finally conquer during the 13th century BC (Pyrgaki 2002, 123-5).

3. Social Organisation

3.1 Early Bronze Age

The earliest forms of social organisation in Mainland Greece appear during the Early Helladic period. Central administration is likely to associate with the monumental ‘Mansions with Corridors’, such as the so-called Potters’ Mansion in Aegina. Variations in architecture suggest social inequality. Furthermore, labour specialisation suggests the presence of craft division (Pyrgaki 2002, 82). In Early Bronze Age Crete there appears to be a form of social organisation based on kinship . The presence of Minoan seals with inscribed ideograms suggests the consolidation of elite private property and the promotion of elite personhood in art (Pyrgaki 2002, 85). Little in know on the social organisation of the Cyclades during the Early Bronze Age. In contemporary urban centres, there is definitely strong presence of merchants and other wealthy urban groups, the prosperity of which is likely to suggest some sort of social inequality. Similar information is noted in relation to the North-Eastern Aegean culture. The only available evidence comes from the ‘vouleuterion’ and other public buildings at the town of Poliochne in Lemnos, which suggests the presence of a central government (Pyrgaki 2002, 86-9).

3.2 Middle Bronze Age

The Middle Helladic period is characterised by a ‘primitive’ form of social organisation and the loss of external contacts, which is the result of introvert and isolated political attitudes in Mainland Greece. This situation coincides the broader stagnation in the Greek Mainland, which is noted in the production of art and material culture in general (Pyrgaki 2002, 95-6). The earlier forms of social organisation are likely to continue in the Cyclades, although most of the evidence comes from burial data. By contrast, information about the organisation of the Palaeo-Palatial society in Crete is frequent. There appears a cultural homogeneity, with centralised organisation and a strong central authority figure. Cretan administration is characterised by advanced bureaucracy, which is noted by the recovery of numerous Hieroglyphic and Linear A inscriptions (Pyrgaki 2002, 99-100). The most prominent figure in Cretan social hierarchy is the palace’s main occupant, who is surrounded by his staff, bureaucrats, officers and priests. The Cretan countryside is occupied by professional groups such as farmers, craftsmen, shepherds and maritimers, who are less prominent compared to the elite social groups associated with the palaces. The lord of Knossos is probably the most powerful person on the island and imposes his political power over the lords of other Cretan palaces. The fact that Knossos has no defensive walls is likely to suggest that the city’s power was remarkable and widely respected by both Cretan and foreign power centres (Pyrgaki 2002, 132-3).

3.3 Late Bronze Age

The Cycladic culture of the Late Bronze Age is characterised by local administrative centres, such as Late Cycladic I Phylakopi in Melos. From the Late Cycladic II period onwards, however, there appear Mycenaean administrative centres, which are characterised by Mycenaean palatial organisation (Pyrgaki 2002, 106). During the Neo-Palatial period in Crete, administration becomes de-centralised and passes on to the hands of local chiefs (Toparches), who control specific territorial divisions and report to the ruler of the local palace. Advanced bureaucracy and strong central control are still present, which are attested by the recovery of seals and Linear A tablets. Religious activities are also frequent during the same period. The palaces have worship spaces designed for a limited number of palatial officials; therefore, there appears to be social division and stratification within the elites. As for the remaining social groups, the vast majority of the population practises religion in public shrines. From the Late Minoan II period onwards, the use of Linear B scripts becomes well-established at the palace of Knossos. This change suggests a strong Mycenaean presence in Crete and a change in the traditional Minoan social structure (Pyrgaki 2002, 108-144). Until circa 1400 BC the administrative system in Mainland Greece is controlled by local chiefs and their kinship groups. Some time later, the rising needs for a strong army with defensive capabilities leads to the rise of local military rulers, who consolidate political power and force a collective and/or totalitarian government. The Acropoleis and the Royal Palaces become administrative centres with complex bureaucracy, which is based on the use of Linear B scripts. There is distinct social hierarchy, where the king holds the highest position; the state’s officials, the military officers and the priests follow right below; the productive social groups, such as the servants, the farmers, the shepherds and the craftsmen belong to the middle social group; and finally, the lowest social group is most likely the slaves. Each palace controls a specific region and all palaces form a federal administrative system. By the end of the Bronze Age, the Mycenaean palatial model expands to the entire Greek Mainland, Cyclades and Crete (Pyrgaki 2002, 122).

Burial practices

4.1 Early Bronze Age

Information about Early Bronze Age burials in Mainland Greece if scarce. By contrast, there is more information in Pre-Palatial Crete, coming from the monumental circular chamber tombs of Messara, most of which have a diameter of 13 metres (Pyrgaki 2002, 83). During the Early Cycladic II period the number of cemeteries and burials is small compared to the Early Cycladic I period; however, the tombs appear in significantly large sizes. There is group burials in built tombs, some of which have an extra floor (e.g. in Avdeli in Naxos). Furthermore, Early Cycladic II chamber tombs contain rich artefacts, associated with local ceramic production and metallurgy. The use of Cycladic marble figurines in local burials suddenly stops (Pyrgaki 2002, 86-7). Regarding the North-Eastern Aegean culture, so far there is no evidence about Early Bronze Age burial customs. There are isolated burials within the city’s walls at Poliochne in Lemnos, yet there is absence of large organised cemeteries in the rural areas of this specific cultural group (Pyrgaki 2002, 89).

4.2 Middle Bronze Age

During the Middle Helladic period there is a spread of rectangular cyst tombs, in which the dead are placed in contracted positions, often inside large ceramic containers. There are both organised cemeteries and individual burials inside settlements, or even child burials under house floors. Burial mounds, which are rare during the Early Bronze Age, become popular during the Middle Bronze Age and reach their peak during the Late Bronze Age. In several occasions, burial mounds continue into historical times. The burial mounds of the Middle Helladic period are constructed over plain burial pits, over burials in ceramic storage containers, over rectangular cyst graves and over monumental chamber tombs. Burial artefacts are rare, which suggests that burial mounds are not necessarily made for the elites or other prominent social groups (Pyrgaki 2002, 95). In Middle Bronze Age Cyclades, organised cemeteries are introduced into the boundaries of walled settlements. The dead are usually accompanied by rich burial artefacts, such as the ones discovered at the cemetery of Agia Eireni in Kea. Furthermore, there are indications of ceremonial burials, which do not show similarities with later cults of the dead (Pyrgaki 2002, 97). In Crete, Middle Bronze Age Knossos has two cemeteries at the modern hills of Prophet Elias and Monastery’s Head. These cemeteries include burial structures, the design of which suggests an early predecessor of typical Late Bronze Age chamber tombs. The one and only Middle Bronze Age chamber tomb in Crete has been discovered at the Gypsades hill (Pyrgaki 2002, 99).

4.3 Late Bronze Age

Unfortunately, there is almost no information for Cycladic burials of the Late Bronze Age. A characteristic example describing this problem is Thera, where no Late Bronze Age cemetery has been so far recovered (Pyrgaki 2002, 133-4). In Crete, on the other hand, there is burial evidence from the ‘Sanctuary Grave’ of Neo-Palatial Knossos. The ‘Sanctuary Grave’ is of monumental size, with relatively peculiar architecture and rich burial artefacts. Its colonnade entrance leads to a paved yard connected with a square chamber tomb, supported by a central pillar. The Late Bronze Age chamber tomb at Isopatoi, also known as the ‘Royal Tomb’, is of similar architecture. It consists of a colonnade entrance, a hallway and a main burial chamber with domed roof (Pyrgaki 2002, 113). In Mainland Greece, there is a variety of burial structures associated with the Middle to Late Bronze Age transition. These range from simple pit burials and chambered tombs, to monumental domed tombs. The pit burials of the transitional period become popular during the Late Helladic I period. A characteristic example of such burials are the ‘Royal Pits’ of Mycenae, which are divided in two burial groups: Burial Group A, dating between circa 1600-1500 BC and Burial Group B, dating between circa 1650-1550 BC. Both burial groups are encircled by a 27m-long wall. Burial Group A was later encircled by another double row of limestone slabs when it was included inside the citadel’s walls circa 1550 BC. Rich burial artefacts have been recovered from all burial groups, which suggest a high level of wealth. Such artefacts include weapons, face masks, jewellery and stamps. From the 15th century BC onwards, Mycenaean burials are characterised by two types of tombs, either chambered of chambered-like. The latter are also called thalamoid or engraved (Pyrgaki 2002, 115 and 142-3).

Bibliography

Pyrgaki, M., 2002, ‘The Bronze Age in Greece’, in Papagianopoulou, A. (ed.) Archaeology in Greece, Volume II, Major Archaeological Fields in Greece and Their Cultural Value, Patra: Greek Open University, 73-161.