Music education in ancient Greece
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The article below was originally written as an undergraduate assignment for the Greek Open University in 2008, during a period when the author’s academic skills were still developing. Although the quality of this article does not match that of later examples of the same author’s work, it is written in a thorough manner and contains useful information for students and other readers with non-specialised knowledge; therefore, it has been proudly included on this website.
The reader needs to be warned that the original assignment, on which this article was based, was written in Greek and was intended to be read by specialised academics. Despite the author’s best intentions to present his essay in the clearest way possible, some points and arguments might still be lost in translation. The author recommends that readers consult the web for additional information on any unfamiliar words or specialised vocabulary.
The author admits that the bibliography for this article is limited, as required for an undergraduate assignment of this level. The author did not include any additional bibliography during the translation of his work into English due to time and access limitations. It must also be noted that the original bibliography for this article was studied from translated copies in Greek; therefore, the page numbers suggested in the citations below match the page numbers of the translated copies and not the original volumes.
Introduction
This article discusses music education in ancient Greece; it focuses on the relationship between music and philosophy and explains the practical aspects of music teaching in daily life. The article is divided into two sections. The first section discusses the importance of music in ancient Greek education and how it reflected the specific social beliefs of the time. Such beliefs are also noted in the work of various philosophers from Classical antiquity, who stress two aspects of music education: first, its intellectual contribution to youth, and second, its impact on the cultivation of ethos for future citizens. The second section discusses the practicalities of music-teaching in ancient Greece and the pedagogical methods employed. It discusses the broader role of music in the education systems of Athens and Sparta, which offer most of the written accounts on the subject, as well as the different types of music education noted in various textual sources from Greek antiquity. The final section presents an overview and some basic conclusions on the social importance of music education in ancient Greece, also in relation to the philosophical views of the Classical period.
The pedagogical importance of music in ancient Greece
According to the ancient Greeks, the highest purpose of education was the cultivation of young people’s souls. In this process, the ‘art of the sounds’ was believed to be essential, together with philosophy; both disciplines were perceived as one. Philosophers, such as Plato and Pythagoras, correlated music and philosophy, and suggested that they both had the same goal: to ‘coordinate’ the human soul with ‘universal harmony’ (Papaoikonomou-Kipourgou 2003, 291-3). Regardless of the views of different philosophical schools in ancient Greece, the cultivation of the soul was often presented in musical terms.
The pedagogical importance of music was not only promoted by ancient philosophers but also widely believed by most citizens of the time. Nowadays, the greatest obstacle to understanding music education in ancient Greece is the scarcity and fragmentary nature of the information. Most information dates to the Classical period and relates almost exclusively to Athens. Despite this problem, ancient sources confirm a strong correlation between music and psychological development. Indirect sources mention that Pythagoras often emphasised the positive influence of music on the formation of moral character, while he also stressed the therapeutic impact of sound on the human soul. The latter view is even nowadays supported by modern medical science. Damon the Athenian, who had been the teacher of Pericles and Socrates, agreed with the views of the Pythagoreans, which he passed on to his students. Plato probably adopted Socrates’ views on the impact of music on people’s souls, which he then introduced in his dialogues discussing the education of the young Athenians of his era (Papaoikonomou-Kipourgou 2003, 291-3).
According to Plato, music was a divine art, which led people to the conquest of harmony. Harmony was described as a non-material good, just like every other divine Idea in Plato’s theory. Plato was also the first to introduce theoretical constraints on the teaching of music; however, it is difficult to say whether these constraints were ultimately implemented in the education system of Classical Athens. Plato strongly opposed innovation in music: he believed that students were obliged to maintain the musical traditions of his time, without any additions or modifications. The students were discouraged from mixing the sounds, scales, and rhythms of different music genres. Under the same principle, students were supposed to avoid ‘multi-stringed’ and ‘multi-harmonious’ musical instruments as they could produce mixed musical scales. Furthermore, Plato condemned the practice of music, which aimed at the satisfaction and uncontrolled pleasure of the audience. In relation to this point, Plato was not necessarily opposed to practising music in front of an audience, but most likely opposed playing music for recreation in various symposia, which probably undermined the essence of music (Papaoikonomou-Kipourgou 2003, 291-3).
Aristotle was the first philosopher to discuss a number of theoretical issues on music. He presented a series of arguments on the necessity of music in the education of the youths; he recognised the importance of music in the formulation of morality; and, finally, he forwarded an approach to music education that was less strict than Plato’s. Aristotle argued that music was an essential part of the education of young people and that it should be taught to them for four reasons. Firstly, it entertained and relaxed the students. Secondly, it promoted moral character among youths by cultivating the mind. On this point, Aristotle believed that music consisted of universal (catholic) laws, which formed universal prototypes. As soon as the human mind came into contact with these laws, it copied their prototypes and applied them to moral behaviour. Thirdly, music offered humans intellectual and aesthetic pleasure, a manifestation of well-being (eu zein = quality of life). In that sense, music improved and enriched people's daily lives. Fourthly, music was believed to be therapeutic and to cleanse the soul of its passions. This was achieved through a series of emotional responses generated by the sounds, which were based on the standardised structures (e.g., the climaxes) and axioms (e.g., tonic rules) of music (Papaoikonomou-Kipourgou 2003, 294-6).
In his discussion of the relationship between ethos and music, Aristotle followed the general approach of other ancient music theorists of his time, known as the Harmonic philosophers (αρμονικοί). Such theorists saw ethos as a natural force that shaped human character and as inherent in music; therefore, they believed that music could do the same. The same approach saw music as the carrier of a total universal ethos. Furthermore, different theoretical components of music, such as musical notes, tunes, genres, harmonies, and rhythms, were seen as constituent parts of the total universal ethos. Aristotle adopted this rationale and explained the impact of different music styles on the ethos of the human soul. For example, he saw that the ethos of the Dorian Style was modest and manly, whereas the Hypolydian Style was believed to be intoxicating and flirtatious (Papaoikonomou-Kipourgou 2003, 294-6).
The presence of contrasting bi-poles in the ethos of ancient Greek music styles, at least according to Aristotle and the Harmonic philosophers, suggests that the impact of music on young people might not have always been positive, but also negative. The choice of ‘wrong’ style elements in music education was likely to corrupt youth morality. This was expected to have catastrophic consequences, not only at the personal level, but also at the social and political levels (Papaoikonomou-Kipourgou 2003, 294-6).
Indirect information about the music education in Classical Athens can also be found in the comedies by Aristophanes. In the Acharnians, presented in 425 BC, Aristophanes recalls the old times, when children sat with modesty and were taught to sing in a strong, harmonious tone befitting their glorious ancestors. Music instructors used to punish the children who copied “the ways of Phrynes” and bent forward or imitated inappropriate body postures during class (Fracelière 2003, 129). Of course, the comedies by Aristophanes are not the most relevant texts on music education in Classical Athens; however, they confirm the broader perceptions of his time on the social problems generated when music education was neglected or taught poorly.
From the end of the 5th century, and especially during the 4th century BC, many intellectuals began to disagree about the moral impact of music education and its positive contribution to the character of young students. During that period, a new musical style was introduced into the daily activities of the ancient Greeks, threatening the traditional structure of music education, at least in its role as the carrier of social ethos. Unfortunately, little is known about this new musical style because ancient music was not recorded in ways we can reproduce today. Information about this new style survives in textual accounts that do not describe the style itself but rather the social perceptions it generated in relation to other traditional styles. This probably suggests that the new style was imported and unrelated to older Greek musical traditions. We definitely know that the new musical style of the 4th century BC was welcomed as an innovation, altering the strict relationship between music and morality. This situation verified Plato’s fears, who had predicted a ‘demoralisation’ of Athenian society much earlier, and was manifested in the popularity of a rather ‘immoral’ musical style of possibly Oriental origin. In relation to ancient theatrical plays, we nowadays know that Aristophanes belonged to those who disapproved of the new style, while Euripides and Agathon belonged to those who adopted it in their poetic creations (Papaoikonomou-Kipourgou 2003, 296).
In conclusion, the questioning of the moral influence of music education emerged alongside a new musical style around the 4th century BC, about which little is known today. Due to the same lack of information, one cannot be totally sure to what extent this new style was adopted in Athenian music education. It is also likely that, despite undermining the traditional ethos, the new musical style promoted an early form of artistic freedom of expression that was previously not allowed for young students due to broader social opposition to musical innovation. The critique of Aristophanes of Euripides probably reflected the broader social debate on the moral impact of the new style.
Practical aspects of music education in ancient Greece
The surviving information about the music education of the ancient Greeks concerns almost exclusively Athens and Sparta. The education systems of the two city-states used to set the standards for the education of the youths in most parts of the Greek world throughout Classical antiquity. Unfortunately, information on music education during the Geometric and Archaic periods is almost absent; therefore, research is limited to sources from the Classical and Hellenistic periods, whose standards continued during the Roman period (Papaoikonomou-Kypourgou 2003, 163).
Music education in ancient Greece likely began long before the spread of the alphabet and the widespread use of writing. The Homeric Epics, which describe an era of orality, include numerous references to musicians and other performers. Achilles, for example, who was portrayed as embodying the aristocratic ideals of ancient Greek elites, is described as having been taught music and never neglecting to practise it, even during his military campaigns (Fracelière 2003, 126). It is likely that during early Greek antiquity, education in general and music education in particular were privileges of the elite. From the Classical period onwards, however, music was seen as the foundation for educating free citizens (Papaoikonomou-Kypourgou 2003, 126). This shift probably suggests that during the Classical period, music education became more accessible to youths from less prominent social strata. Despite this expansion of music education, some youths could not attend music lessons due to broader social limitations at the time. In general, learning how to play music was neither feasible nor affordable for a large proportion of Athens’ and Sparta’s populations.
Music education in the ancient Greek world is first attested in 6th-century BC textual sources, the early Archaic period. Although Athens and Sparta followed different education models, they both incorporated music into their education systems. The modern notion of a public education system probably aligns with the Spartan model, in which the state strictly regulated and supervised the schooling and training of children. By contrast, Athens had a private education system in which the type of education for children was determined by their parents (Papaoikonomou-Kypourgou 2003, 164-5).
In both city-states, education began at the age of six or seven. Along with music, children were taught how to read and write, while physical exercise and sports were compulsory. In that sense, there used to be three main types of educators: the musician (κιθαριστής), who taught music; the grammar teacher (γραμματιστής), who taught language, spelling, writing, and reading; and finally, the children-trainer (παιδοτρίβης), who was tasked with physical education. The knowledge and fluent use of the Greek alphabet in ancient education was highly important for three reasons. Firstly, the alphabet was used to record the spoken language of the time and was seen as essential proof of literacy. Secondly, the alphabet was used in mathematics to record numbers and proportional relationships between sums. Thirdly, it was used in music to represent sounds, which somehow coincided with modern notes. The above relationship shows that music education in ancient Greece was closely linked to literacy (Papaoikonomou-Kypourgou 2003, 164-5).
In Sparta and the Dorian city-states of Crete, music education was not only connected with schooling but also had military importance. The Spartans used to conduct their battle manoeuvres to the sounds of flutes, which maintained the marching rhythm and ensured coordinated movement among the fighting divisions. Music education in Sparta probably aimed to accustom youths to the sounds of battle flutes and to teach them to coordinate their movements to the flute rhythm. This coordination was partly responsible for the notorious discipline of the Spartan hoplites (Papaoikonomou-Kypourgou 2003, 164-5).
In Athens, the education system was not connected with soldiering and military activities, at least not directly. The education system was private and paid for by parents, which meant orphans were less likely to receive a proper education. In such cases, the state used to pay for the schooling of ‘the nation’s orphans’, who were children of fallen soldiers. Unlike Sparta, in Athenian music education, students were offered a choice between ‘lyre’ and ‘flute’ lessons (Papaoikonomou-Kypourgou 2003, 164-5).
The ancient Greek word ‘lyre’ describes a series of stringed musical instruments played with a key. In modern musicology, this category of instruments is described as yoke lutes. Such instruments consist of three parts: a yoke (known as the chordotone), a number of strings attached to the yoke , and a hollow ‘speaker’ right under the strings. The most common types of ancient Greek ‘lyres’ were seven: the phorminx, also known as the kitharis; the lyre, which resembled a small harp; the barbitos, also know as chelone (turtle), which was made of turtle shell; the Kithara (guitar), which was in reality a seven-stringed forminx; the aeoric kithara, which was mostly connected with female performers; the harp and the lute (Neubecker 1986, 78-84).
The ancient Greek word aulos (αυλός) translates as 'flute'; however, the term encompassed a variety of woodwind instruments, consisting of single or double pipes of equal length with three or four perforations. Ancient Greek flutes were rarely played solo (by a single performer); most of the time, music was simultaneously played by two performers, who either carried single or double-piped flutes. Despite the use of flutes in music education, Athenian aristocrats believed that stringed instruments were more suitable for their social status and position. This was due to the origins of stringed musical instruments, which were indigenous, as opposed to those of woodwind instruments, which were introduced from Asia Minor together with the cult of Dionysus. According to ancient textual sources, Plato and Aristotle disapproved of flutes, while Alcibiades hated them because they deformed the faces of musicians (Neubecker 1986, 84-6).
Significant information on music education in ancient Athens comes from decorative representations on Attic vases from the Classical period (490/478 – 323 BC). Such representations depict young men attending music classes taught by adult male instructors. During flute lessons, students practised without a phorbeia, a leather strap worn around the head that held the flute to the musician’s lips. This strap was most likely used by professional flute performers. For yoke lute lessons, pottery representations depict students and teachers seated across from each other. It is likely that during the lesson, the teacher played a specific tune, which the student had to repeat right after him. In the same representations, students are depicted with seven-stringed guitars, which they played with bear fingers or a key (plectron). The lesson was probably empirical, based on the acoustic repetition of the taught material; music semiotics were most likely not employed in music education for the recording of sounds, although they actually existed. The main advantage of yoke lutes was that they did not occupy the musician’s mouth, which was the case with flutes. This allowed the students to practise singing and playing the strings simultaneously. Archaeology has revealed a decorated vase depicting a music teacher playing the kithara and singing, while his student accompanies him on the flute. This shows that in ancient music education, singing was taught alongside playing stringed instruments (Neubecker 1986, 128-9).
Music education in ancient Greece was not only important for cultivating the souls of the city-state’s future citizens, but also for preparing and integrating them into the city-state’s social life and religious activities. Cult and other religious activities for adult citizens, which formed the backbone of social unity and cohesion, were closely linked to songs and music. The hymns to the gods, the paeans, the musical nomoi, the dithyrambs, the prosodies, the pathenia and the hyporchemata were songs dedicated to the city-state’s patron gods; they combined singing and music, and most likely demanded a generalised level of music education by the citizens, in order to enjoy them or even participate in their execution. In ancient Athens, in particular, music education was never meant to be exclusive to youth. Drama contests were an essential element of Athenian social life and were also regulated by the city-state. All adult Athenian citizens participated in the drama contests, either as actors and members of the chorus, or as members of the audience at the theatre of Dionysus. The chorus members learned and rehearsed songs embedded in the plays; these were conducted by professional musicians, and during rehearsals, the chorus was supervised by music teachers and choreographers. Such songs consisted of the choric parts of tragedies and the parabases (parabasis in singular) of comedies (Neubecker 1986, 52-65).
Although most pottery representations on Attic vases depict young males engaged in music education and adult male musicians, women also participated in music and dance performances, particularly at official religious events. The unfavourable social position of women in Classical Athens probably meant that girls were not offered the same education as boys; however, music was an exception. The Pathenia, festive songs primarily associated with the cult of Dionysus, were performed by choruses of young maidens. This probably suggests that there were groups of young female artisans who received some form of music and dance training to participate in the ceremonies of the state religion (Neubecker 1986, 75). The teaching of music to young maidens is also attested by the painted representation on ceramic marital cauldrons (gamekos leves = γαμικός λέβης). Such pots usually depicted the bride and her female friends playing music with triangular harps and flutes (Papaoikonomou-Kipourgou 2003, 165).
On the participation of women in music education, there is surviving information about the House of the Nursing Muses (Οίκος των Θεραπαινίδων Μουσών), which was directed by the poetess Sappho at the island of Lesbos during the early 6th century BC. The House was a type of boarding school for young females, where they were taught to read, write, play music, and sing (Papaoikonomou-Kipourgou 2003, 165). Of course, historical accounts of schoolmistress Sappho are ambiguous. Certain ancient textual sources accuse Sappho of prostitution, while her female boarding school is seen as an enterprise of organised pimping (Vanoyeke 2006, 65-6). The teaching of flute to women was also connected with prostitution; textual accounts and pottery representations suggest that professional ‘companions’ (hetairai = εταίραι, in plural) used to entertain men in their symposia by playing the flute. This practice was so well-established in the ancient Greek world that the word auletris (αυλητρίς = female flute performer) was synonymous with the word hetaira (paid female companion) (Fracelière 2003, 130). Whatever the case, it is almost certain that professional female flute performers in ancient Greece were thoroughly and intensively trained in music at a young age. This was probably done by professional music teachers, who were employed by the prostitution industry of that time.
The first professional unions for musicians appeared in Athens during the 4th century BC; these were called ‘Commons’ (koina = κοινά) and their members were called The Artisans of Dionysus (tecnhitae Dionysou = τεχνίται Διονύσου). Such artists were guitarists (kitharistes = κιθαριστές); guitar-singers (kitrharodoi = κιθαρωδοί); flute players (auletes = αυλητές); flute-singers (aulodoi = αυλωδοί), which is a relatively convoluted term; singers (aoidoi = αοιδοί); composers, actors and poets. The foundation of ‘Commons’ led to the establishment of private music and drama schools, affiliated with the members of these unions. Such schools used to teach ‘psalms’ (psalmoi = ψαλμοί), which were compositions for stringed musical instruments played without keys; guitar practice (kitharismoi = κιθαρισμοί); singing, accompanied by guitar-playing (kitharodies = κιθαρωδίες); rythmography (ρυθμογραφία), which was the composition of rhythms; melography (μελογραφία), which was the composition of melodies; tragedy and comedy. Teaching in such schools was practised by memory, with the use of acoustic repetitions; no music texts were used in this type of music education. The first teaching manuals on ancient music appeared during the 3rd century AD, towards the end of the Roman era (Papaoikonomou-Kipourgou 2003, 165-6). This suggests that the teaching and transmission of music during the Classical and Hellenistic periods relied solely on oral transmission. This practice contrasts with other forms of cultural production during the same periods, which were characterised by literacy and were recorded in writing.
In relation to the social perceptions of the Greek antiquity, a truly educated man was regarded as a “musical man” (mousikos aner = μουσικός ανήρ). For the ancient Greeks, education was incomplete without music. Themistocles, who was one of the most profound Athenian generals, used to feel disadvantaged due to his incomplete education, as he never learned to properly tune the lyre and use the psalterion. The importance of music in education is also confirmed by textual sources from the city of Teo in Ionia, where guitarists were reported to be the best-paid teachers of the Classical period (Papaoikonomou-Kipourgou 2003, 166).
Summary and conclusions
In summary, the teaching of music in ancient Greece reflected certain social beliefs that also aligned with the philosophical traditions of the Classical period. According to these beliefs, music was important for cultivating young people’s souls and for developing moral character. The structure of music education was believed to incorporate elements of ethos, introduced to youths through learning different music styles and sounds. Music tradition was regarded as sacred, and maintaining it was the duty of every student. When a new music style appeared towards the end of Classical antiquity, it was held responsible for the moral decay and the collapse of social values of that era.
Music instruction in Athens was private and offered to children by their parents as part of their broader schooling. By contrast, the teaching of music in Sparta was under state regulation, as was every other subject in the Spartan public education system, known as the Agoge. In general, the teaching of music included singing and playing various types of musical instruments, which nowadays fall into two broader groups: yoke lutes (‘lyres’) and flutes. The teaching of music was acoustic, empirical, and repetitive; no semiotics was used, although a recording system used letters of the Greek alphabet to represent sounds.
In Classical Greece, music was an important element of adult life; therefore, music education was believed to offer a strong foundation for future citizens. For young men, music education prepared them for their military tasks and for their participation in the city-state’s official religion. In Athens, in particular, music training for adult males continued with their participation in religious festivals and drama contests. For young women, music education was limited and related to the participation of young maidens in the state religion. Finally, some popular perceptions of Classical antiquity dictated that an educated and socially successful man was a “musical man” (mousikos aner). This approach suggests that music education was not only important for the benefit of youths but was also used to impose social stratification.
Bibliography
Papaoikonomou-Kipourgou, K., 2003, ‘Supplementary features of ancient Greek music’, in Lekkas, D. (ed.) Arts II: Review of Greek Music and Dance, Volume II, Greek Music Praxis: Ancient and Middle Ages, Patra: Greek Open University, 139-172.
Fracelière, R., 2003, Public and Private Life of the Ancient Greeks, translated by G. Vandoros, Athens: Papadimas.
Neubecker, A.-J., 1986, Music in Ancient Greece, translated by M. Simota-Fidetzi, Athens: Odysseus.
Vanoyeke, V., 2006, Prostitution in Ancient Greece and Rome, translated by A. Karantonis, Athens: Papadimas.