Modern Greek ‘artistic’ music: schools, movements, interactions
Disclaimer
The article below was originally written as an undergraduate assignment for the Greek Open University in 2008, during a period when the author’s academic skills were still developing. Although the quality of this article does not match that of later examples of the same author’s work, it is written in a thorough manner and contains useful information for students and other readers with non-specialised knowledge; therefore, it has been proudly included on this website.
The reader needs to be warned that the original assignment, on which this article was based, was written in Greek and was intended to be read by specialised academics. Despite the author’s best intentions to present his essay in the clearest way possible, some points and arguments might still be lost in translation. The author recommends that readers consult the web for additional information on any unfamiliar words or specialised vocabulary.
The author admits that the bibliography for this article is limited, as required for an undergraduate assignment of this level. The author did not include any additional bibliography during the translation of his work into English due to time and access limitations. It must also be noted that the original bibliography for this article was studied from translated copies in Greek; therefore, the page numbers suggested in the citations below match the page numbers of the translated copies and not the original volumes.
Introduction
This article discusses the developments in modern Greek ‘artistic’ music between the early 18th and late 20th centuries. It focuses on the various music schools and broader musical movements that coexisted over two centuries, and on their interactions. The term ‘artistic’ is given in quotation marks as it relates to a specific genre of Greek music and is not meant to undermine other popular or commercial music genres. The discussion primarily focuses on the historical, ideological and political conditions which impacted the development of ‘artistic’ music production in modern Greece.
The paper is divided into five sections. The first section discusses the definition of ‘artistic’ music, which can be interpreted in various ways. It demonstrates the multiplicity of this definition, which coincides with different approaches towards ‘artistic’ creation in specific music genres.
The second section focuses on Heptanesian ‘artistic’ music production in the 18th and 19th centuries. It discusses its most characteristic features in relation to the geography, the music education system, and the most prominent political and ideological ideas, which circulated in the Venetian-occupied Heptanese islands.
The third section explores the evolution of ‘artistic’ music in the newly funded Greek State between the 19th and early 20th centuries. This section focuses on the ideology of the modern Greek nation-state and the establishment of a rigid National identity through music, particularly by urban composers who worked in the state’s new capital city, Athens.
The fourth section presents an overview of the evolution of modern Greek ‘artistic’ music during the late 20th century, focusing on the changes and the diversions from the patterns noted in earlier periods. The final section presents a brief summary in relation to the Heptanesian, National and Modern Schools of Greek ‘artistic’ music. It compares and correlates the above Schools and comments on their most important similarities and differences.
The definition of ‘artistic’ music
The definition of ‘artistic’ music in the Greek context is biased and depends on a range of artistic, ideological, political, and social parameters, as well as on the scholarly approaches of different historical periods. A general definition of artistic music would include written compositions recorded using specific methodologies and semiography, which make the material accessible for future reference. Artistic music contrasts with folk music, which follows tradition and is based on orality. Unlike artistic music, folk music does not necessarily require ‘literacy’ in order to be studied, recorded and performed (Virvidakis and Lekkas 2003, 60-1).
Artistic music could also be the product of ‘high culture’, which is consumed by a limited audience, as opposed to ‘mass culture’, which is industrially produced for mass consumption. Another feature of ‘artistic’ music is the acceptance and assimilation of modern features that relate to progressive musical, political, social, or ideological developments. In this sense, ‘artistic’ music produces a break with tradition and the past; it adopts new elements and adapts them to contemporary needs (Virvidakis and Lekkas 2003, 60).
Greek ‘artistic’ music is not necessarily limited to movements of the 19th and 20th centuries. Throughout Greek history, there were recorded cases of composers who introduced a break with the existing traditions of their time. The work of Ioannis Coucouzelis during the 14th century and the polyphonic compositions of the Palaeologan Renaissance (1261-1453) consist of ‘artistic’ creations of the Late Byzantine period. Furthermore, the ‘external melodies’ of the Phanariot community in the 18th century constitute an early form of modern Greek ‘artistic’ music. Finally, during the 19th century,
There were many ecclesiastic and cosmic creations, which were codified and preserved according to the semiotic by Chrysanthus (Xanthoudakis 199, 245-6).
The Heptanesian musical pursuits
The production of ‘artistic’ music in the Heptanese remained ‘Westernised’ throughout its historical course. This was due to the infiltration of Western features from Crete during the late 17th century, as well as to direct contacts with Venice, which probably continued even after Venice was conquered by Napoleon in 1797. In relation to the Cretan influence on Heptanesian music, after the fall of Chandax in 1669, a large group of Cretan scholars and artists migrated to the Heptanese, bringing with them the cultural traditions of their homeland. Such traditions included the Westernised polyphonic ecclesiastic music of the 17th century, which was enriched with Intermedia taken from the Cretan theatrical tradition. In relation to its direct Western influences, Heptanesian ‘artistic’ music adopted elements from 18th-century Italian opera. More specifically, the theatre San Giacomo in Corfu hosted such plays from 1773 onwards. During the same period, Italian musicians visited the Hebrews as members of mobile theatrical groups that not only presented their plays but also offered music education courses to local artists. In that sense, the contacts between the Heptanese and the West generated the right conditions for the creation of a local ‘artistic’ music production, which was based on the conventions and rules of Italian opera (Xanthoudakis 199, 247).
The ‘artistic’ music of the Heptanese was produced within the broader education system of the Islands, which was organised according to the Italian humanitarian ideas of the 18th century and the broader principles of the European Renaissance. The Heptanesian composers had a relatively loose connection with the Byzantine Ecclesiastic tradition, which, by contrast, was strong in mainland Greece; this allowed them to assimilate Western musical influences, which were dominant in Heptanesian musical education. During the 19th century, a significant number of Heptanesian composers produced ecclesiastical melodies based on Byzantine prototypes, while continuing to compose ‘artistic’ cosmic music in accordance with Western standards. At the same time, the first attempts to compose Greek operas were based on Italian Librettos (Romanou 2003, 381-5).
The main representative of Heptanesian ‘artistic’ music was Nikolaos Chalkiopoulos-Mantzaros (1795-1872), who was influential within the Heptanesian School for his patriotic approach. He composed a plethora of patriotic works, the most important of which is the music to the Hymn To Liberty (Ύμνος εις την Ελευθερία) by Dionysios Solomos, which became Greece’s National Anthem in 1865. His students followed the same approach and patriotic thematology: Giuseppe Liberali (1820-1899), also known as Josef Liberales, composed a series of operas inspired by the Greek War of Independence (e.g., Rigas Ferraios, Markos Botsaris, The Return of Kanaris). Spyridon Xyndas (1812-1896) was the first to compose operas on Greek Librettos. Finally, Paulus Carrer (1829-1896) wrote many operas that were performed throughout mainland Greece, promoting the same patriotic spirit (Romanou 2003, 385-9).
Other important Heptanesian composers did not necessarily belong to the Circle of Mantzaros. George Labelet (1875-1945), for example, was heavily influenced by the musical experimentation of the early 20th century, which was popular in Athens. During that time, ‘artistic’ music was influenced by the ideas of Manolis Kalomoires (1883-1962), who believed in composing National music based on Russian and Scandinavian (Wagnerian) prototypes. George Labelet (1875-1945) expressed significant doubts on this specific approach. Nikolaos Tzanes-Metaxas (1825-1907) from the island of Cephallonia wrote a series of patriotic songs, such as Hail People of the (Ω, Λαέ της Επτανήσου) Heptanese, Greeks - Do Not Be Afraid (Μη Φοβείσθε Γραικοί), Greek Slaves (Έλληνες Δούλοι), Hymn to the Greek Flag (Ύμνος προς την Ελληνικήν Σημαίαν), etc. Spyridon Philiskos Samaras (1861-1917) from the island of Corfu lived primarily in Athens and composed operas, some of which were presented at the Teatro alla Scala in Milan. In 1896, he composed the Olympic Hymn based on the verses of the poem Ancient Immortal Spirit (Αρχαίο Πνεύμα Αθάνατο) by Kostis Palamas (1859-1943). It is important to note that Samaras attracted negative and unfair criticism by Manolis Kalomoires, who used to undermine his work by calling him “an Italian composer” (Romanou 2003, 390-2).
‘Artistic’ music in the modern Greek state
The first ‘artistic’ pursuits in the modern Greek state began in Athens during the early 19th century and were supported by King Otto of Bavaria. During the first years of Otto’s reign, the capital city of Greece hosted German military bands that performed frequent open-air concerts (Xanthoudakis 1999, 247). At the same period, Italian and French theatre troupes used to present popular European operas. The first theatre in Athens, the so-called Boukouras Theatre, was built in 1840 in order to host such plays. Apart from operas, there were also presentations of other genres of European ‘artistic’ music, mainly compositions by German, Italian and Heptanesian musicians. Such music was quickly assimilated by the society and infused into other regional types of popular art. For example, the Greek 19th-century romance comedies were inspired by Western prototypes, although their characteristic features were always folk and traditional (Romanou 2003, 393-4).
The promotion of Westernised ‘artistic’ music in the newly funded Greek state was part of the broader attempt at state ‘Europeanisation’ during that period. This attempt demanded the ideological bonding between ‘literate’ and folk art traditions, which would lead to the foundation of a new National and official music culture with ‘ethnic’ character. This goal was satisfied through the reproduction of Westernised melodies dressed up with Greek lyrics, for example, the first Greek military marches, in which the music was typically German. Gradually, the ‘Europeanisation’ of Greek music introduced Romantic prototypes, accompanied by the official language of the newly founded Greek state, the formalised Katharevousa. The so-called folk tradition of the ‘slavery years’ was completely abolished; urban music was officially ‘cleansed’ of any ‘Eastern’ influences; and, finally, Byzantine Ecclesiastic tradition and folk creations were gradually left aside in the National-formal music production. The same logic was extended to musical instruments: in the 19th century, former ‘Eastern’ or ‘folk’ instruments were replaced by popular Western instruments such as the violin, clarinet, and piano (Tsamparas 2003, 424-5).
The promotion of opera in the newly founded Greek state was in harmony with the broader aims of Romanticism. On an ideological level, Romanticism promoted the idea of National independence and the cultivation of National consciousness; both were essential to the survival of the modern Greek nation-state at the beginning of its creation. For the nation-state, the welcoming of the opera in Greece meant a simultaneous adoption of the broader ethnic visions proposed by European Romanticism. Of course, the Westernisation and ‘Europeanisation’ of National music were official state pursuits and meant a conscious and complete Westernisation of Greek art. This approach first appeared in Athens and was supported by both Heptanesian composers (e.g., Carrer and Xyndas) and composers of the Greek National School (e.g., Kalomoires, Varvolis, and Rhiades) (Gregoriou 2003, 346-8).
The shift towards Western Romanticism in 19th-century Greece was further strengthened by the ideas of the European Enlightenment, which dictated a broader scholarly interest in ancient Greece. During the early days of the Greek nation-state, archaeologists recovered two abstracts of an ancient Delphic Hymn to Apollo, which shifted the academic interest towards ancient Greek music. During that time, the first concerts of ‘ancient Greek’ music appeared in Athens, performed with replicas of ancient musical instruments reproduced in Western Europe. Through these performances, Western ‘artistic’ elements were reintroduced in Greek music, this time reviving supposed ancient Greek traditions. This approach determined that any shift towards ancient Greek musical traditions had to be in line with Western interpretations of the ancient Greek past (Romanou 2003, 384-5).
The final role in the evolution of modern Greek ‘artistic’ music was played by Greek musicians educated in Western music styles, who either arrived in Athens from the Eastern territories, or the Heptanese. In the first case, the phenomenon is well known as ‘Europeanisation from the East’; it refers to the arrival of Greek-speaking musicians from Asia Minor in the early to mid-19th century. During that period, the Greek communities of Asia Minor had already assimilated Western musical influences through commercial contacts between the coastal cities of the Ottoman Empire and the large European capitals. Other influences from the West had arrived in the Ottoman world through various networks of Catholic proselytism. The youths of the rich bourgeoisie of Asia Minor, such as Manolis Kalomoires, attended non-Greek-speaking ‘Westernised’ schools and later continued their studies in various European capitals (Romanou 2003, 384-5).
The arrival of Heptanesian musicians in Athens was different from that of the Eastern Greeks. The Heptanisian composers had already studied the Greek patriotic thematology from the beginning of the War of Independence in Mainland Greece, and they were already using the Greek Demotic language in Westernised compositions. In the newly-founded Greek state, many Heptanesian musicians were appointed directors of music academies (e.g., Demetrius Digenis), or they introduced Heptanesian ‘artistic’ genres into the Athenian musical and theatrical scenes (e.g., Paulus Carrer and Spyridon Philiskos Samaras). Paulus Carrer, in particular, was also innovative for his time. He not only exploited the patriotic thematology in two of his operas, Markos Botsaris (Μάρκοσ Μπότσαρης) and Kyra Phrosyne (Κυρά-Φροσύνη), but also introduced the ‘ancient’ thematology in his opera Marathon-Salamis, which included elements of German Neoclassicism and French Naturalism (Xanthoudakis 1999, 247-9).
Under the above circumstances, the National music of the modern Greek state lost contact with the anonymous folk tradition and became synonymous with Western education and the influence of specific musicians. Of course, the Westernisation of Greek National music was not that simple because its main representatives belonged to different Schools. Manolis Kalomoires (1883-1962), who grew up in Smyrna and was a ‘Westernised’ Eastern Greek musician, developed his National ideas during studies in Vienna. Kalomoires believed that National Greek music should have been based on German rather than Italian influences, as previously promoted by the Heptanesian composers. This was also why he used to mock the Heptanesian School and call its musicians ‘Italians’. During the 19th century, his ideas were officially adopted by the National Odeon, the state’s highest music academy, and were finally established in music education throughout Greece during the mid-war period (Romanou 2003, 397-9).
The establishment of Kalomoires’ ideas was also enhanced by the cultural and political climate of that time. Many German Philhellenes had already promoted admiration and enthusiasm for Greek culture in Europe before the Greek War of Independence. After the foundation of the modern Greek nation-state, such Philhellenes offered scholarships to young Greek students to study music and the arts at German-speaking institutions. In relation to his ideological perceptions, Kalomoires adopted the approaches of German Romanticism and Romantic Symbolism, which he then introduced in his music to support the pursuits of the ultimate Greek National vision, the Great Idea (Μεγάλη Ιδέα). His operas The Mother’s Ring (Το δαχτυλίδι της Μανας), The First-Creator (Ο Πρωτομάστορας) and The Symphony of Courage (Η Συμφωνία της Λεβεντιάς) promoted the vision of liberty for the ‘enslaved lands’, which was part of the broader National ideology of the time (Romanou 2003, 397-9).
The necessity of a Greek music tied to National ideology had also been suggested by George Labelet (1875-1945) and Dionysius Lauragas (1860-1941) in 1901; however, both Heptanesian musicians believed that such National music should have been based on Demotic music, which was part of the oral folk tradition of the 19th century. Kalomoires modified their views and suggested a new National music-language that would not be based on folk motifs or the incomplete or randomly placed verses of Greek Demotic music. Instead, he suggested a National music-language with clearly defined structural elements, such as rhythms and scales, associated with Western ‘rhetoric’ music. Kalomoires definitely knew that the features of Demotic music, or any other genre of folk music, were easily modified to ‘rhetorical’ elements. This was the case with German and French National music production of the same period, which introduced folk modifications. Such modifications were also promoted by Kalomoires during his teaching years at the National Music Academy and adopted by the next generations of musicians at the National School. The final prevalence of Kalomoires’ ideas in modern Greek ‘artistic’ music was most likely due to two reasons. Firstly, because he promoted a poetic Nationalism, which was simultaneously supported by other Greek scholars of that time, such as the poet Kostis Palamas (1895-1943) and the writer Yiannis Psycharis (1854-1929). This poetic Nationalism was different compared to the Nationalism promoted by George Labelet, which has been characterised as ‘Metaxic’ (associated with the Metaxas dictatorship between 1936 and 1941). Secondly, because Kalomoires’ works, which supported poetic Nationalism, were and still are of unquestionable musical quality, and have received continuous popular appreciation (Xanthoudakis 1999, 249).
The final developments of the 20th century
Greek ‘artistic’ music of the early 20th century was strongly influenced by the ideas of Kalomoires and his students, who continued the musical pursuits of the National School. Marios Varvoglis (1885-1967), Petros Petrides (1892-1977) and Aemilios Rhiades (1880-1935) continued the composition of Greek themes based on French and German music prototypes until the middle of the 20th century. The ideological background of the National School was finally passed on to relatively recent composers such as Georgios Sklavos (1888-1976), Georgios Poniridis (1887 or 1892-1982) and Andreas Nezerites (1897-1980). Next to the National composers, individual musicians appeared who did not participate in the debate over foreign influences on Greek National music, yet they were influential in the evolution of Greek ‘artistic’ music in general. One of them was Nikos Skalkotas (1904-1945), who had previously studied in Germany and had assimilated influences from almost every Greek composer until the mid-war period. Despite his young age, Skalkotas literally produced the Golden Section between Demotic music and various Western genres, which were followed by his contemporaries. A sample of his work included 36 traditional Greek dances composed for symphonic orchestra and 8 variations of a single folk song composed for piano, violin, and cello (Romanou 2003, 400-5).
The period between 1920 and 1925 could be regarded as the height of Greek ‘artistic’ music. It was characterised by the modernisation of the existing music repertoire, enriched by the influence of various foreign and local composers, spanning a variety of music genres. The music director and pianist Demetrius Metropoulos (1896-1960) was probably the most inspiring musician of that period. At the same time, there were the first attempts by newly-funded Greek record companies, such as Odeon and Columbia, to ‘popularise’ what was seen as ‘good music’ and to promote the work of ‘artistic’ composers. The first radio broadcast of Greek ‘artistic’ music occurred in 1930, marking its popularisation among a wide audience (Romanou 2003, 406-7).
After the Second World War, Greek ‘artistic’ music was influenced by the broader social and political developments in Europe. The Cold War and the Western aversion to Communism, the political isolation of the Soviet Union and the Warsaw Pact, and the break between modernity and tradition within the West, promoted a worldwide music shift towards ‘radical innovations’. What was believed to be ‘artistic’ was redefined as new, exotic, different, and innovative. The first new tendencies appeared in the Greek music stage during the 1950s and were characterised by the features of the Western Avant-Garde movement. Two of the most important Greek composers of the Avant-Garde were Iannis Xenakis (1922-2001) and Yiannis Christou (1926-1969). During the Colonel’s Dictatorship (1967-1974), the Greek music scene was dominated by two independent movements of ‘artistic’ music. The first one by Mikis Theodorakis (1925-2021) was characterised by a left-wing reactionism, which promoted the ‘resistance’ features of ‘artistic’ music and its relationship with social pursuits and class struggle. The second one by Manos Chatzidakis (1925-1994) was characterised by the collapse between the strict boundaries of Greek music genres, which previously dictated that ‘artistic’ music was supposed to be limited to an ‘elite’ audience (Romanou 2003, 408-10).
During the Dictatorship, despite efforts to modernise and popularise Greek ‘artistic’ music, the entire genre became a carrier of political ideology. After the collapse of the Dictatorship, the political parties of the new democratic regime followed the example of Mikis Theodorakis and sponsored the production of political music for mass consumption; such songs were written and composed by party-funded composers of popular acceptance, and stood away from the principles of previous ‘artistic’ movements. Furthermore, the late Avant-Garde ‘artistic’ music received an academic character, particularly towards the end of the 20th century. Its compositions were almost exclusively tonic, which means they were organised around specific sound-repetitions or ‘beats’. Furthermore, they were based on European Avant-Garde prototypes, adorned with certain idiomatic elements from the preceding National School and selective features from various traditional dance-music genres (Romanou 2003, 411).
Summary and conclusions
The Greek ‘artistic’ music of the 18th century followed Western European developments, adopting its semiotics, methodology, and typology. The composers of the Heptanesian School were influenced by Venetian Crete's traditions and by Italian opera; they borrowed artistic elements from both traditions to create compositions in Greek, with themes mainly patriotic. The character of Heptanesian ‘artistic’ music was forged through the humanitarian education of Heptanesian composers, developments following the European Enlightenment, and the distance purposely maintained between the composers and the preceding Byzantine tradition.
After the foundation of the modern Greek nation-state in the early 19th century, the Europeanisation of Greek ‘artistic’ music was enhanced by the ideology of Romanticism and the need to create a National music. The production of such music marked a clear distinction from Demotic music, Ecclesiastic music, and other traditional genres. The ideas of early Romanticism were promoted through the production of operas in the capital city of Athens, composed by Heptanesian and ‘Westernised’ Eastern Greek composers. The founder of the Greek National Music School was Manolis Kalomoires, who supported German tendencies in music and rejected any Italian influence associated with the Heptanesian composers. Although some Heptanesian composers had suggested a National music based on Demotic prototypes, in the end, the ideas by Kalomoires dominated the Greek music scene, which suggested a National music based on Germanised ‘Demotic-style’ features. A few Heptanesian composers, such as Paulus Carrer, adopted and combined music elements from the contemporary developments in France and Germany.
The balance between Western and Demotic traditions was first seen in the compositions by Nikos Skalkotas at the beginning of the 20th century. From 1925 onwards, ‘artistic’ music was promoted to a large audience through the record industry and radio broadcasts. This spread made clear that ‘artistic’ music was no longer limited to the social elites. Even though the National School dominated the 20th century, composers such as Iannis Xenakis introduced the latest developments in the Avant-Garde movement. This adoption verified the Western affiliations of modern Greek ‘artistic’ music and its ability to integrate innovative features from the latest European developments. During the mid-20th century, Manos Chatzidakis was the first composer to challenge the boundaries between ‘artistic’ and ‘folk’; at the same time, Mikis Theodorakis exploited the developments in modern Greek ‘artistic’ music to promote the new political ideology of the Greek Left.
During the last years of the 20th century, the persistence in the production of political compositions with wide public reception downgraded the character of modern Greek ‘artistic’ music. Although the Avant-Garde movement continued, its character became academic and eclectic, probably because of the latest international developments and cultural Globalisation.
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