The role of the poet in Geometric and Archaic Greece

Disclaimer

The article below was originally written as an undergraduate assignment for the Greek Open University in 2005, during a period when the author’s academic skills were still developing. Although the quality of this article does not match that of later examples of the same author’s work, it is written in a thorough manner and contains useful information for students and other readers with non-specialised knowledge; therefore, it has been proudly included on this website.

The reader needs to be warned that the original assignment, on which this article was based, was written in Greek and was intended to be read by specialised academics. Despite the author’s best intentions to present his essay in the clearest way possible, some points and arguments might still be lost in translation. The author recommends that readers consult the web for additional information on any unfamiliar words or specialised vocabulary.

The author admits that the bibliography for this article is limited, as required for an undergraduate assignment of this level. The author did not include any additional bibliography during the translation of his work into English due to time and access limitations. It must also be noted that the original bibliography for this article was studied from translated copies in Greek; therefore, the page numbers suggested in the citations below match the page numbers of the translated copies and not the original volumes.

Introduction

This article discusses the role of the typical ancient Greek poet as portrayed across various genres of poetry produced between the 9th and 6th centuries BC. The discussion covers the poetry of the archaeologically known Geometric and Archaic periods. Due to the complexity of the topic and the number of poets encountered within this chronological span, the paper focuses on six texts by five representative figures from the above periods. The first section focuses on the Homeric epics and explores the role of the poet in the introductory verses of the Iliad and the Odyssey. The second section focuses on how the poet is being portrayed in Hesiod’s Theogony, written towards the end of the 8th or early 7th century BC. The third section moves to the Archaic period and discusses the role of the poet in Archilochus of Paros's works. The fourth and fifth sections examine abstracts from the works of Theognis of Megara and Sappho of Lesbos, focusing on the social and political changes witnessed by both poets during the 6th century BC. The final section concludes with a discussion of the role of the ancient Greek poet and its evolution over time, based on the poetry of the five selected representatives.

The role of the poet in the Homeric epics

Since Classical antiquity, there have been long debates about Homer’s time and place of existence, including theories about the circumstances of his composition and his paternity. Unfortunately, an outline of all arguments and views till present cannot be part of this essay. According to Herodotus, whose testimony is nowadays considered to be more plausible than others, Homer’s poetic peak should be placed sometime in the middle of the 9th century BC (Anastasiou 2001, 61) (1). His poetry reflects the general ideas of Early Greece and consists of narratives on gods and heroes. Modern scholarship classifies Homer’s work as a heroic epic.

In the introductory verses of the Iliad, the narrative begins with an invocation to the goddess-muse and a brief statement about the poem’s topic. More specifically, in the Iliad (1-7), the main topic is Achilles’ wrath and his refusal to fight alongside the other Greeks (Stephanopoulos et al. 2002, 14-15). In the introductory verses, the poet’s character is literally absent. Homer does not renounce himself as the creator or even the performer of his work; therefore, his artistic persona and his personal signature do not exist. In the first verse of his composition, he commands the anonymous goddess-muse to tell the story of Achilles’ wrath: “Μῆνιν ἄειδε, θεά, Πηληϊάδεω Ἀχιλῆος" (Homer, Iliad, 1) (2). It is evident that the poet is only there to carry the goddess’s narration to the audience.

The poet’s objective is to describe the final events of the Trojan War as these are told by an unknown muse. Such events occurred through divine intervention, and it is the same divine intervention that enables the poet to communicate the story to the audience. This is clearly noted in the statement “Μῆνιν ἄειδε, θεά…”, where the story is literally told by the goddess. Again, noted in the fifth verse, the statement “Διὸς δ’ἐτελείτο βουλή…” explains that Zeus was responsible for what happened, which is to be explained as the story unfolds.

Despite Homer’s dedication to the traditional form of epic poetry, which commands respect for divine powers, the Iliad's introductory verses include elements of later philosophical ideas that depart from traditional religion. For example, verses 3-5 explain that a mortal man’s soul rests in Hades, while his flesh becomes the feast of dogs and vultures.

The same attitude is noted in Homer’s Odyssey, although minor innovations in the general style are likely to be due to an evolution following the Iliad. In the first verse, the poet commands the goddess-muse to tell him the story of the “man of many ways”, the cunning Odysseus: “ Ἂνδρα μοι ἒννεπε, Μοῦσα, πολύτροπον…”. Here, the poet is not just the carrier of divine narration, which is noted in the Iliad, but he mediates and tells the story that is dictated to him by the anonymous goddess-muse. The participation of Homer in the narration is emphasised by the use of the dative in the statement “μοι ἒννεπε”, which literally means “describe to me”. Furthermore, the anonymity of the goddess-muse in the Odyssey is not as strict as it appears in the Iliad. In verse 10, Homer provides a clue by stating that his muse is “…θεά, θύγατερ Διός…”, a goddess and the daughter of Zeus.

In the Odyssey, Homer’s presence marks an artistic evolution; the poet introduces his persona for the first time. It is likely that a gradual evolution occurred during the transition from the creation of the Iliad to the Odyssey, leading to the recognition of the poet’s role, which later became part of all poetic compositions. This period marks the beginning of a new era in Greek poetry, in which the poet’s persona becomes the artistic norm during the 6th century BC.

The role of the poet in Hesiod’s Theogony

Hesiod lived sometime during the second half of the 8th century BC, although some scholars argue that he was contemporary to Homer. Such arguments are based on a 2nd-century BC remark on the Contest of Homer and Hesiod (Ἀγὼν Oμήρου καὶ Ἡσιόδου) (Anastasiou 2001, 106-7) (1). Whichever era the Boeotian poet lived in, his epics are didactic rather than Homer’s heroic epics; therefore, he introduces a new poetic style. His era is characterised by a general agricultural recession (Στενοχώρια), during which the farmers demand a fair redistribution of land. This period is also characterised by intense colonisation and the foundation of Greek city-states all over the Mediterranean basin, which is likely to have been associated with the broader shortage of cultivated land (Mossé & Schnapp-Gourbeillon 2002, 202). Although Hesiod’s didactic epic Works and Days draws on the sociopolitical problems of his era, his earlier Theogony pursues the same theological agenda as Homer.

In Theogony, Hesiod produces a theological catalogue, explaining the birth of our world and the succession of power among the gods. His composition is based on previous mythological material, which he arranges in the right chronological sequence (Anastasiou 2001, 108-9). In the introductory verse, he urges the muses of Mount Elicon to sing together with him: “Μουσάων Ἑλικωνιάδων ἀρχώμεθ’ ἀείδειν…” (Hesiod, Theogony, 1). Hesiod pays his respects to the numerous muses, acknowledging their divine origin and describing at length how they prepare their dances and songs to praise the gods (Hesiod, Theogony, 5-21).

In Theogony, the role of the poet is elevated compared to the Homeric epics, as evident in verses 22-25. There, the poet is no longer an anonymous carrier of the muses’ story. He introduces himself by name (Hesiod), he explains his profession (a shepherd at the slopes of Mount Elicon) and describes his relationship with the muses: they were those who spoke to him and taught him how to sing, “…αἵ νύ ποθ’ Ἡσίοδον καλὴν ἐδίδαξαν ἀοιδήν…” (Hesiod, Theogony, 23). In Theogony, the poet Hesiod is undoubtedly an existing person, who receives the divine inspiration from the muses (“…ἐνέπνευσαν δε μοι αὐδὴν θέσπιν…”) (Hesiod, Theogony, 31-2). On the other hand, the muses have no direct intervention in his composition, but according to his statement, they are the ones who ordered him to sing about the events that happened and are meant to happen, and praise the race of the gods without unnecessary references (Hesiod, Theogony, 32-5). The role of the poet in Theogony matches that of an inspired teacher, assigned the divine task of clarifying the theological cosmos of his time and presenting it to an ignorant audience.

At this point, it is important to stress that both poets of the Geometric period, Homer and Hesiod, are interested in a supernatural cosmos that belongs to the gods and heroes. Furthermore, they show no intention to criticise or doubt the structure of this cosmos, or the qualities of its protagonists. As explained further on, in the following centuries, poets shift from the supernatural cosmos of the gods and heroes to the existing cosmos of mortal humans. They focus on the everyday realities of their time and are inspired by the people around them. Archaic poetry becomes detached from the supernatural elements of the Geometric period, as it coincides with the emergence of the pre-Socratic philosophers and the broader evolution of human thought that gave rise to early science. Philosophers of the Archaic period, such as Xenophanes of Colophon (570-475 BC), opposed the anthropomorphic character and the immoral nature of the gods (Coucouzeli 2001, 35-36), which were previously portrayed by Homer and Hesiod. During the Archaic period, the role of the poet was different.

The role of the poet in the compositions of Archilochus

The life of Archilochus from the island of Paros is placed at the beginning of the Archaic period, and more specifically, c. 680-640 BC. His poetry is elegiac and iambic; his style is sarcastic, and his broader approach is anti-heroic. In this sense, Archilochus presents an ideal that is completely different from those of Homer and Hesiod (Lypourlis 2001, 123). The poet’s era is characterised by a major innovation in Archaic warfare, the development of the hoplite phalanx, which became the main military formation of the ancient Greek world (Mossé & Schnapp-Gourbeillon 2002, 185-7). Even though Archilochus was from an aristocratic family, he became poor and was forced to earn his living as a mercenary hoplite. It is known that he joined at least one military expedition against the island of Thasos (Lypourlis 2001, 127).

In his surviving Excerpt 1, Archilochus presents himself not as a poet, but as a warrior: “εἰμὶ δ’ ἐγὼ θεράπων μὲν Ἐνυαλίοιο ἄνακτος…” (Archilochus, Excerpt 1, 1). The persona of the mercenary-warrior is noted by an indirect mention to the “Enyalius King”, the God of War, Ares. His primary nature as warrior, which can be verified by Archilochus’ personal story, is supplemented by his secondary nature, that of the poet: “…καὶ Μουσέων ἐρατὸν δῶρον ἐπιστάμενος” (Archilochus, Excerpt 1, 2). Archilochus possesses the loving gift of the muses, which is his ability to compose poetry. As opposed to Homer and Hesiod, the muses have offered him his poetic skill as a gift, and therefore, they do not intervene in his compositions. In other words, the poet is no longer dependent on divine inspiration, and also, the poet does not have to carry what is told to him by the muses.

The contrasting characters of soldier and poet, and the fact that Archilochus is the curator (ἐπιστάμενος) of his art, are combined in his poetry to stress that his driving force is his own persona. Poetry, just as war, is an art that was offered to humans by the gods (the muses and Ares); however, the human being is solely responsible for understanding and utilising these arts according to their own will, even if such arts contradict each other.

The personal element in Archilochus’ poetry is noted with the introductory declaration “I am…” (“εἰμὶ δ’ ἐγὼ…”) and his broader tendency to describe abstracts from his personal life in his verses. The role of the poet is to advertise his own self, and to do this, he exalts his ego to become the source of his creative inspiration. Archilochus is the first internationally recognised poet to dare this innovation Lypourlis 2001, 128).

The role of the poet in Theognis’ Elegies

The life of Theognis from the city of Megara should be placed sometime between the end of the 6th century BC and the beginning of the 5th century BC (Lypourlis 2001, 125); however, there are scholars who argue that his life should be placed earlier, in the middle of the 6th century BC, or even during the late 7th century BC (Stephanopoulos 2002, 140). Regardless of the dating of his work, Theognis lived at a time of the gradual decomposition of traditional aristocracy, of which he was a part. The decline of the aristocracy was accompanied by the rise of new social groups in the stratification of city-states (Stephanopoulos 2002, 140). The content of his compositions is mostly political and ethical. In his poetry, he denounces the sociopolitical reality of his time, which allowed the newly rich (the Neveau-Riche) to flourish, while the real aristocrats were in decay. Theognis is known for his general tendency to praise the aristocratic ideals of a previous era.

In his Elegies (verses 237-254), Theognis addresses a young man of aristocratic descent, Kyrnos, who participates in aristocratic feasts and symposia. The poet places himself in the service of the young aristocrat. Theognis’s role is to make Kyrnos famous among the symposium’s participants and to ensure his ‘immortality’, as his name will be pleasantly mentioned with appropriate praises at subsequent banquets (Theognis, Elegies, 237-247). The ‘immortality’ that Theognis offers is symbolic and mediated through his verses, which will preserve Kyrnos’ name through time thanks to the gifts that the muses gave to the poet (Theognis, Elegies, 249-250).

The role of the poet is laudatory, and his art is put in the service of the aristocracy for their banquets, whose ideals he aims to make ‘immortal’ through Kyrnos. Theognis also portrays himself as a teacher, which is revealed through a complaint to Kyrnos: “…but you do not even pay a little attention to me, and as a young boy, you deceive me with unfulfilled promises” (“αὐτὰρ ἐγὼν ὀλίγης παρὰ σεῡ οὐ τυγχάνω αἰδοῡς, ἀλλ’ ὥσπερ μικρὸν παῑδα λόγοις μ’ ἀπατᾷς”) (Theognis, Elegies, 253-254).

The nature of Theognis’ poetry is human, and the divine element is totally absent. The composition consists of the teachings of a poet-teacher, who offers divinity to his recipients and their ideals by recording them and making them ‘immortal’ through time.

The role of the poetess in the excerpts of Sappho

The poetess Sappho, from the island of Lesbos, lived sometime between the late 7th and early 6th centuries BC. She was of aristocratic descent and witnessed an era of political unrest, during which she was also exiled (Lypourlis 2001, 135). She was strongly against the tyrant Pittacus of Mytilene (c. 640-568 BC) (Mossé & Schnapp-Gourbeillon 2002, 202), just as many other aristocrats of her era, who were losing power due to the rise of tyranny. Sappho’s poetry has a strong personal element; she writes compositions to discuss her family problems, such as her notorious dispute with her brother Charaxos, and to honour Aphrodite, the goddess of love and erotic desire (Lypourlis 2001, 135-9).

In Excerpt 55 L-P, Sappho probably addresses another poetess, undermining her work and her capacity to compose poetry. She claims that once her opponent is dead, she will be forgotten as she “was never adorned with any rose from Pieria” (Sappho, Lobel-Page 55, 1, translated by Sotiris Kakisis and published in Alexiou 2001, 139). The note to Pieria concerns the Pierian Mountains, the mythological residence of the muses, who used to offer a blooming rose to the best poets and to guarantee their post-mortem reputation.

A common feature in the compositions of Sappho and Theognis is the relationship between poetry, reputation and ‘immortality’. Both artists note that, in the hands of a good composer, poetry can be transformed into a powerful weapon that elevates the artist and his recipient and offers eternal recognition to both. By contrast, the artist who does not possess the poetic gift and the recipient who was never praised by such a poet are both condemned to anonymity. Sappho seeks this anonymity for her opponent poetess and notes that “she will walk the premises of Hades (the underworld), pale and unknown among the crowds of the dead” (Sappho, Lobel-Page 55, 3-4, translated by Sotiris Kakisis and published in Alexiou 2001, 139).

The major difference between Sappho and Theognis lies in the focus of their ‘immortality’. Theognis uses his poetry to offer ‘immortality’ to a specific recipient or a personal ideal that he represents. By contrast, Sappho focuses on her own ‘immortality’. In her compositions, the role of the poetess is to satisfy her personal ego and to preserve her own reputation through the diminution of her opponents. Furthermore, Sappho might overstress her poetic virtue as a characteristic of the elites, particularly if she composes against a poetess of a non-aristocratic background. This attitude aligns with Theognis’ praises to the virtues and the ideals of the aristocracy.

A final point to make about Sappho's compositions is that the muses' role is secondary. The muses will crown the poet posthumously if the poet has lived an honourable life; however, the reputation of the poet depends solely on talent and the work one produced while still alive.

Conclusions

This brief discussion of the role of the poets during the Geometric and Archaic periods shows a gradual disengagement from reliance on divine intervention and a shift towards promoting their personal character. In the Iliad, which is the earliest composition under examination, Homer is the anonymous carrier of what the anonymous goddess-muse is narrating. In the Odyssey, he remains anonymous but narrates as a mediator between the goddess-muse and the audience. In Theogony, Hesiod produces the first innovation in Greek poetry: he introduces himself to the audience as the composer; however, he does not neglect to praise the muses of Mount Elicon for offering him the gift to compose and for singing along with him.

During the Archaic period, the poet’s role changes. Archilochus distances himself from the muses and projects his personal value as a poet, who skilfully composes his own work without any necessity of divine intervention. Archilochus does not even praise the muses for their gifts; therefore, his personal value as a poet nullifies the divine element in poetry. The muses are equally absent in the compositions of Theognis. Although he recognises that the divine forces are meant to crown people with their gifts, it is the poet who offers ‘immortality’ to his recipient. The final victory of the poet’s ego over the divine is noted in the verses of Sappho. The composer who once was the sole carrier of divine voice, now becomes immortal and divine through his/her own works, which serve a personal purpose.

The evolution of the poet's role over time can also be seen in the central themes of the compositions under discussion. Homer speaks about the actions of the gods and the achievements of the heroes. Hesiod was commanded by the gods to teach his audience whatever relates to the creation of the universe and its divine hierarchy. The poetry of both Homer and Hesiod is in the service of the immortals and their supernatural world. By contrast, the poets of the Archaic period offer their poetry to the service of mortals. Archilochus converts his personal experiences to poetic compositions; Theognis praises the aristocratic ideals and their representatives; and Sappho deifies the poetess and promotes her own ego through poetry.

It appears likely that during the Geometric period, poetry focused on the gods and heroes and aimed to preserve their reputations across time. During the Archaic period, poetry acquired a new social function and aimed to satisfy human needs; it was charged with praising the living and promoting their posthumous reputation, as if they were the new immortals.

Notes

1. This view is from Anastasiou (2001) and probably reflects that of many other modern Greek philologists. My personal view on the subject differs, but it had not been formulated at the time this essay was written in 2005. First of all, Herodotus explains that he is unsure of his calculations, but places Homer roughly 400 years earlier than his own time (c. 450 BC). He also believes that Homer and Hesiod were contemporaries. I agree with Robin Osborne (2009, 150) that the final form of the Iliad and the Odyssey was intended for an audience with a sense of common Pan-Hellenic identity. According to the archaeological evidence, such identity began to be forged during the early 8th century BC; therefore, the Iliad and the Odyssey could not have been created before c. 750 BC. More recent research on the ‘Homeric Issue’ (as it is historically defined) places Homer during the late 8th century BC. Although the Iliad might reflect some earlier ideas and notions of Mycenaean culture, which were orally passed down in the 8th century BC, the material culture, the ideas, and the situations described in the Odyssey reflect the time of birth of the Greek city-state; therefore, the Odyssey must be placed between the late 8th and early 7th century BC, if not slightly later. Personally, I accept that the Iliad and the Odyssey were composed by the same person, Homer, and that the distance between the two compositions was roughly two to three generations. Homer’s peak should be placed at the beginning of the Late Geometric period, probably during the ceramic phase LGI (c. 760-735 BC), as this is reflected in the Kerameikos sequence, which is also the time of the Iliad. The Odyssey is probably later and contemporary with Hesiod’s work, conventionally placed at c. 700 BC. This could explain why the elderly Homer and the young Hesiod might have shared some common experiences during the early Archaic period and, therefore, were believed by Herodotus to be contemporaries.
2. The Iliad’s translation published by Stephanopoulos et al. (2002) is based on the 1955 translation by Nikos Kazantzakis and Ioannis Kakridis, which is highly problematic. For example, the word Πηληϊάδεω is mistakenly translated as famous, while in reality it means “the son of Peleas”. In general, the translation is relatively loose, with various ambiguities and modern interventions followed by Kazantzakis. Another example of such intervention is noted in the second verse, where Kazantakis uses the expression “ανάθεμά τη” (damned it). This is due to Kazantzakis’ tendency to borrow certain expressions from Cretan folk songs, the ‘Mantinades’, which form a long-standing tradition in his own homeland.

Bibliography

Anastasiou, G., 2001, ‘The Epic’, in Melista, A. (ed.) Letters 1: Ancient Greek and Byzantine Philology, Volume 1, The Archaic and Classical Periods, Patra: Greek Open University, 53-116.
Coucouzeli, A., 2001, ‘Religious values’, in Sbonias, K. (ed.) Introduction to Greek Culture, Volume 2, Important Hallmarks of the Greek Civilisation, Patra: Greek Open University, 27-40.
Lypourlis, D., 2001, ‘Earlier Ancient Greek lyric poetry’, in Melista, A. (ed.) Letters 1: Ancient Greek and Byzantine Philology, Volume 1, The Archaic and Classical Periods, Patra: Greek Open University, 117-156.
Mossé, C. & Schnapp-Gourbeillon, A., 2002, Epitome History of Ancient Greece (2000-31 BC), translated by Stephanou L., Athens: Papadimas.
Osborne, R., 2009, Greece in the Making: 1200-479 BC, second edition, London: Routledge.
Stephanopoulos, Th.K., Tsitsiridis, S., Antzouli, L. and Kritseli, G., 2002, Anthology of Ancient Greek Literature, second edition, Athens: OEDB.

Ancient sources

Archilochus, Excerpts, 1
Hesiod, Theogony, 1-35
Homer, Iliad, A1-7
Homer, Odyssey, A1-10
Sappho, Excerpts, 55 L-P
Theognis, Elegies, 273-257