The Hymns to Zeus by Callimachus and Cleanthes

Disclaimer

The article below was originally written as an undergraduate assignment for the Greek Open University in 2006, during a period when the author’s academic skills were still developing. Although the quality of this article does not match that of later examples of the same author’s work, it is written in a thorough manner and contains useful information for students and other readers with non-specialised knowledge; therefore, it has been proudly included on this website.

The reader needs to be warned that the original assignment, on which this article was based, was written in Greek and was intended to be read by specialised academics. Despite the author’s best intentions to present his essay in the clearest way possible, some points and arguments might still be lost in translation. The author recommends that readers consult the web for additional information on any unfamiliar words or specialised vocabulary.

The author admits that the bibliography for this article is limited, as required for an undergraduate assignment of this level. The author did not include any additional bibliography during the translation of his work into English due to time and access limitations. It must also be noted that the original bibliography for this article was studied from translated copies in Greek; therefore, the page numbers suggested in the citations below match the page numbers of the translated copies and not the original volumes.

Introduction

This short article is divided into four sections and discusses two Hellenistic hymns that exhibit interesting similarities and differences. The first section presents the general characteristics of Hellenistic poetry, which are noted in most compositions of this period. The second section examines these general characteristics in relation to the Hymn to Zeus by Callimachus of Cyrene (c.310/305 – c. 240 BC). Another Hymn to Zeus was written by the Stoic philosopher and poet Cleanthes of Assos (c. 330 BC – c. 230 BC), who was contemporary to Callimachus. The third section of this paper compares the two hymns and discusses the differences observed in Cleanthes’ composition, reflecting his philosophical background. The fourth section concludes on the style of the two poets and the general trends noted in the poetry of their era.

The general characteristics of Hellenistic poetry

The poetry of the Hellenistic period (323 – 31 BC) is influenced by the broader political, cultural and social conditions of that time. Its composition and dissemination are in Greek (the Hellenistic Koine), and its popularity is enhanced by the Greek rulers of the Hellenistic kingdoms, who are, in most cases, monarchs and scholars with diverse intellectual interests. Hellenistic rulers funded public libraries and promoted education and the arts by sponsoring and hosting various philosophers and artists at their courts (Fyntikoglou 2001, 24-7).

From a political perspective, the Hellenistic monarchies led to a crisis in the democratic city-state system. All political decisions are made by the monarchs, and therefore, the monarchy converts politically active citizens of the Classical period into politically inactive subordinates of kings. This political change results in a social change and a shift towards individualism. The individualistic philosophies of the Hellenistic period guide people towards personal eudaimonia (eudaimonia = εὐδαιμονία), a feeling of esoteric satisfaction. This tendency takes over many aspects of Hellenistic life, including poetry and the arts (Fyntikoglou 2001, 24-7).

Callimachus of Cyrene is the most representative figure in Hellenistic poetry. He is a philologist, a lexicographer, and a scientist, and various aspects of his extensive education are evident in his poetic compositions. These have the form of rare words, the apax legomena (ἅπαξ λεγόμενα = noted once), rare names and exact descriptions of toponyms (names of places). Callimachus is a multifaceted poet who produces a variety of compositions, including hymns, elegies, and iambic and lyric poetry. He promotes a renewal of poetic discourse by using traditional material without excessive imitation of the Classical tradition. Furthermore, he promotes a quantitative reduction of the text (ολιγοστιχία = oligostichia) and a detailed, careful elaboration of words (Fyntikoglou 2001, 57-64).

In relation to his techniques, Callimachus condenses the main events of the traditional plot and emphasises the insignificant details of the original myth. His compositions are characterised by humour, subtlety, subversions of the expected plot, allusions to places and people not directly named, and the use of strange words (Fyntikoglou 2001, 68-9). The protagonists are not as important as they are traditionally believed to be; their personalities are shrunk, demythologised and given a daily tone. Emphasis is placed on the psychology of the protagonists as children, and there is mention of unknown features and events from their lives, which are employed to stress the poet’s eloquence. Controversial issues are often raised, while the courtly character of the compositions is obvious (Fyntikoglou 2001, 73-5). The scholarly nature of poetry is manifested through the worship of detail; there are realistic descriptions of objects, situations and human emotions, while emphasis is placed on the actuality and special gravity of each word. This phenomenon is known as formalistic intensity (Fyntikoglou 2001, 28-30).

The Hymn to Zeus by Callimachus

The typical characteristics of Hellenistic poetry described above are noted in the Hymn to Zeus by Callimachus, which also includes some of the poet’s personal particularities. The composition begins with a philological dilemma presented by the poet himself, where he wonders which of the best names describing Zeus should be: “…Δικταῖον ἀείσομεν ἠὲ Λυκαῖον…” (Callimachus, Hymn to Zeus, 4). Should Zeus be called Dictaeos (descended from Mount Dicte in Crete) or Lycaeos (descended from the Lycaean Mountains of Arcadia)? In reality, Callimachus’ question is technical, as it relates to a debate between the Cretans and the Arcadians over the origins of Zeus’ birthplace. The poet is answering his question emphatically by quoting a statement attributed to the Knossian philosopher Epimenides, who is likely to have lived in the 6th or even 7th century BC: “Κρῆτες ἀεὶ ψεῦσται” (Callimachus, Hymn to Zeus, 8), meaning that the Cretans are always liars.

A similar philological question relates to the division of power among the gods. According to the tradition, the divine powers amongst the Olympians were shared by pure chance (Callimachus, Hymn to Zeus, 61-4). Callimachus explains that the Danaid poets are lying when they speak of a lottery (κλῆρον) of divine powers (Callimachus, Hymn to Zeus, 60-61), a statement that automatically places Homer’s views in question (Lesky 1981, 975-6). Callimachus’ answer is again straightforward, claiming that Zeus won his seat on the throne of Mount Olympus by personal value (Callimachus, Hymn to Zeus, 66-7). By employing a game of questions and answers, the poet projects his knowledge and scholarly education to the audience, including his competence in issues of mythological and philosophical nature.

By following a similar tactic, Callimachus demonstrates his geographical knowledge through a thorough review of toponyms and names of their inhabitants. The inhabitants of Peloponnese are called Apidanees (Ἀπιδανῆες) (Callimachus, Hymn to Zeus, 15); the inhabitants of Crete are called Cydones (Κύδωνες) (Callimachus, Hymn to Zeus, 45); Parassia is described as a bush-covered mountain (“…ἔσκεν ὄρος θάμνοισι περισκεπές…”) (Callimachus, Hymn to Zeus, 11); and finally, Panakra are mountains that belong to the Mount Idi complex (“…Ἰδαίοις ἐν ὄρεσσι, τά τε κλείουσι Πάνακρα…”) (Callimachus, Hymn to Zeus, 51). Callimachos also demonstrates a thorough understanding of mythology and presents some rare details from it: Adresteia was the Melia who used to put baby Zeus in bed (“…σὲ δ᾽ ἐκοίμισεν Ἀδρήστεια…”) (Callimachus, Hymn to Zeus, 47); Amaltheia was the goat that fed baby Zeus with milk (“…σὺ δ᾽ ἐθήσαο πίονα μαζόν αἰγὸς Ἀμαλθείης…”) (Callimachus, Hymn to Zeus, 49-50); finally, the Courites were those who were looking after Zeus and danced the prylin dance around him to cover his cries (“…οὖλα δὲ Κούρητές σε περὶ πρύλιν ὠρχήσαντο τεύχεα πεπλήγοντες…”) (Callimachus, Hymn to Zeus, 53-4).

The Hymn to Zeus contains a number of rare words, which communicate simple meanings in complicated wording, and are used to stress Callimachus’ broad grammatical knowledge. A characteristic example is the word Ogygion (ὠγύγιον) (Callimachus, Hymn to Zeus, 14), meaning “from the time of Ogyges”, which is used to declare the old age of a certain location, as with the name Apidanees (Ἀπιδανῆες) (Callimachus, Hymn to Zeus, 15), which is the old name for the Peloponnesians. According to the Abbreviated Encyclopaedic Dictionary of (the newspaper) ‘Proia’ (Zeugolis 1932, 2354), Ogyges was the mythical king of Thebes in Boeotia, who was also the founder of the city of Eleusis in West Attica and the city of Thebes in Egypt.

Callimachus’ Hymn to Zeus is significantly reduced compared to the typical religious hymns of previous periods, covering a total of 96 verses. Reduction does not only occur in the hymn’s size, but also in the qualities and the character of the hymn’s main protagonist, the mighty and terrifying god Zeus. In verses 42-55, Zeus is portrayed as an innocent baby with the typical psychological, biological, and behavioural characteristics of early childhood: his umbilical cord falls off, he cries, he is breastfed, and he sleeps, while in verses 55-56, teenage Zeus grows his first facial hair. The hymn’s protagonist is stripped of his majestic status and becomes an everyday human being, with qualities and behaviour that are no different from anyone else’s.

The narration of events in Zeus's life is limited to his childhood and adolescence. His main achievements as a powerful god are carefully concealed, for example, his role in the battle of the Titans, which has been previously described in Hesiod’s Theogony. Instead, Callimachus emphasises minor incidents from Zeus’ life, namely his childhood in Crete.

The royal character of Callimachus’ poetry and his relationship with the Ptolemaic court are evident throughout the text. Zeus is the protector of all lords (Callimachus, Hymn to Zeus, 73) and appoints human kings by his personal and divine will (Callimachus, Hymn to Zeus, 79-80). Callimachus suggests that the kings ascend to their thrones and possess their powers in the same way that Zeus does. Zeus’ ascension to the Olympian throne was determined by his personal value and not by vote or luck. Zeus’ brothers acknowledged his superiority and renounced their claim to the throne. Callimachus uses this information in analogy to Ptolemy Ceraunous (c. 319-279 BC), who resigned in favour of his brother Ptolemy II Philadelphus (c. 308-246 BC), who used to be Callimachus’ patron (Lesky 1981, 976). Later on, Callimachus flatters Ptolemy II by saying that he is a worthy king, who thinks ahead of everybody else, and whatever he decides at dawn, he makes sure it is ready by nightfall (Callimachus, Hymn to Zeus, 86-7). This is why Callimachus is asking Zeus to favour his friends, “…ἅ τ᾽ ἐμοῖσι φίλοις ἐνδέξια φαίνοις…” (Callimachus, Hymn to Zeus, 69), meaning his patron, Ptolemy II.

Callimachus’ views on life align with the broader individualistic philosophy of the Hellenistic period. This is evident in the final verses of his poem, which have the form of a brief obsecration: “Give virtue and wealth. Without virtue, wealth would not elevate a man, nor virtue without wealth. Give virtue and wealth”. (“…δίδου δ᾽ ἀρετήν τ᾽ ἄφενός τε· οὔτ᾽ ἀρετῆς ἄτερ ὄλβος ἐπίσταται ἄνδρας ἀέξειν, οὔτ᾽ ἀρετὴ ἀφένοιο· δίδου δ᾽ ἀρετήν τε καὶ ὄλβον”) (Callimachus, Hymn to Zeus, 94-6). Here, material wealth, which is idealised in the Hellenistic world, is not enough to exalt a man without personal virtue; and still, personal virtue on its own is not enough to exalt a man without material wealth. Such views demonstrate the subtlety of maintaining personal balance in pursuing wealth, a typical human goal of the Hellenistic period, and in pursuing virtue, which was the most important human goal of the preceding Classical antiquity.

A comparison between Callimachus and the Stoic poet Cleanthes

As with Callimachus’ hymn, the Hymn to Zeus by Cleanthes is a product of the Hellenistic period. Although both compositions are relatively contemporary, the hymn by Cleanthes presents essential differences from the hymn by Callimachus and does not follow the broader norms of Hellenistic poetry.

Cleanthes’ composition is a religious hymn that strictly praises the name of Zeus. Cleanthes does not reference any geographical, philological or scientific knowledge as Callimachus does, and his hymn has no courtly character. The qualities and life of Zeus are not discussed; instead, his divine nature is overstressed through a series of philosophical references that describe the Stoic cosmos. Any reference to human nature is completely absent. The hymn and the praises to Zeus function as an expression of Stoic theology, and therefore, the hymn has been described as “the most beautiful composition of Stoic piety” (Lesky 1981, 933).

In relation to its structure, the hymn consists of 39 verses and is shorter compared to that by Callimachus. The hymn by Callimachus is divided into six parts: the philological debate on the god’s descent; stories from Zeus’ childhood; a description of Zeus’ qualities and their relationship to those of a monarch; praise of the monarch; the obsecration and the valediction to the god. The hymn by Cleanthes is divided into four parts: the invocation to the god, the main body of the hymn, which enumerates the qualities of Zeus, the obsecration, and finally the valediction. These elements characterise the traditional form of a religious hymn; however, the content differs and has been adjusted to reflect Stoic religious views (Stephanopoulos 2020, 210).

The content presented in the hymn by Callimachus follows the philological traditions of his time. Callimachus emphasises certain episodes from Zeus's life, such as his childhood and his ascent to power among the other gods. At the same time, the traditional theological structure of his hymn is altered by the integration of a human form, that of King Ptolemy II. Although the Ptolemies were considered divine and worshipped as gods according to ancient Egyptian traditions, the integration of a human king into a hymn to a god gives Callimachus’s composition an anthropocentric tone. By contrast, Cleanthes’ hymn contains a variety of philosophical views and other religious ideas associated with Stoic theory. Cleanthes calls Zeus “πολυώνυμε” (polyonyme = the one with multiple names) (Cleanthes, Hymn to Zeus, 1), which relates the Stoic belief in god’s multiple nature: reason, law, destiny and forethought (Stephanopoulos 2020, 210-11). The reference to the “ἀμφήκη πυρόεντ᾽ αἰειζώοντα κεραυνόν” (Cleanthes, Hymn to Zeus, 10), “the sharp, sleepless, fiery thunder”, associates with the revival of Heraclitian theories in Stoic philosophy, and more specifically, the belief that the fire of creation signifies the end of each cosmic circle, introducing the birth of a new one (Stephanopoulos 2002, 210-11).

According to Stoic philosophers, the universe consists of four elements: two active (fire and air) and two passive (earth and water). This belief is presented in verses 15-16 “…οὐδέ τι γίγνεται ἔργον ἐπὶ χθονὶ σοῦ δίχα, δαῖμον,
οὔτε κατ᾽ αἰθέριον θεῖον πόλον, οὔτ᾽ ἐνὶ πόντῳ…”, where Cleanthes states that “without you, oh god, nothing takes place on the ground, or in the divine air, or in the sea”. As noted in verses 20-21 (“…ὧδε γὰρ εἰς ἓν πάντα συνήρμοκας ἐσθλὰ κακοῖσιν, ὥσθ᾽ ἕνα γίγνεσθαι πάντων λόγον αἰὲν ἐόντα”…), the Stoic philosophers believed that both good and bad formed a combined and unique element. Furthermore, good and bad interacted in the fulfilment of a divine plan (Stephanopoulos 2002, 213). In verses 29-31 (“…ἄλλοι δ᾽ εἰς ἄνεσιν καὶ σώματος ἡδέα ἔργα……ἐπ᾽ ἄλλοτε δ᾽ ἄλλα φέροντα, σπεύδοντες μάλα πάμπαν ἐναντία τῶνδε γενέσθαι…”), Cleanthes criticises the views of the Epicureans on the conquest of Eudaimonia (happiness) through living an easy life and by enjoying pleasures of the flesh (Hedone). According to the Stoics, Eudaimonia is gained through virtue (arete), which is achieved by the implication of the logos (logic or balance) in human life, which means living according to the rules of nature and god (Coucouzeli 2001, 125-6). This understanding of Eudaimonia (happiness) not only contrasts with the Epicureans but also with Callimachus. In his Hymn to Zeus, happiness is defined as a combination of virtue and material wealth (Callimachus, Hymn to Zeus, 90-96). By contrast, the Stoics based their happiness solely on virtue and neglected the role of wealth or other material possessions (Coucouzeli 2001, 125).

Conclusions and summary

The Hymn to Zeus by Callimachus represents the most typical characteristics of Hellenistic poetry. These are the reduction of the protagonist’s character, the omission of events that were considered important by previous traditions, the replacement of primary events by secondary events, and finally, the composition’s anthropocentric and courtly (royal) character. Callimachus’ style is both scholarly and ordinary: he demonstrates complex philological and philosophical knowledge; he carefully emphasises the gravity of the words he uses; he adds an anthropocentric, everyday tone to his narration, while at the same time praising royal and divine power by equating gods and kings. By contrast, the Hymn to Zeus by Cleanthes, which was also composed during the Hellenistic period, does not follow the typical conventions of its time. The hymn follows traditional structures and content that aim solely to praise Zeus's name. At the same time, the hymn serves as a medium for communicating the Stoics' philosophical, cosmological, and theological ideas.

Bibliography

Coucouzeli, A., 2000, ‘Philosophy and Science’, in Vasiliou-Papageorgiou, V. (ed.) Introduction to Greek Civilisation, Volume 2, Important Hallmarks of Greek Culture, Patras: Greek Open University, 107-152.
Fyntikoglou, V., 2001, ‘Callimachus’, in Melista, A. (ed.) Letters 1: Ancient Greek and Byzantine Philology, Volume 2, The Hellenistic and Imperial Periods, Patra: Greek Open University, 57-80.
Lesky, A., 1981, A History of Ancient Greek Literature, fifth edition, translated by A.G. Tsombanaki, Thessaloniki: Kyriakidis Bros. SA.
Stephanopoulos, Th.K., Tsitsiridis, S., Antzouli, L. and Kritseli, G., 2002, Anthology of Ancient Greek Literature, second edition, Athens: OEDB.
Zeugolis, G. (ed.), 1932, Abbreviated Encyclopaedic Dictionary of (the newspaper) ‘Proia’, Athens: Proia

Ancient sources

Callimachus, Hymn to Zeus
Cleanthes, Hymn to Zeus