A detailed study of pottery production and industrial facilities in Meroitic Nubia

The largest number of 'Meroitic' kilns is dated to the post-Meroitic (medieval) period (Adams, 1986a). Welsby (2002, 190) suggests that the typical medieval kiln used for firing wheel-made vessels was a two-chambered cylindrical structure, with the fuel chamber dug about 1m below the ground and facing away from the north winds. The actual furnace chamber was usually 1.35m high, and its floor was pierced, allowing heat to enter and circulate around the pots. The upper part of the kiln was open to allow the heat to exit the chamber, and as far as we know, it was never vaulted. It was presumably covered with some organic material, such as cow dung, which is still used today in Egyptian pottery kilns. Experimental methods have shown that these kilns could reach up to 850ºC and possibly used local timber (tamarisk and acacia) as fuel (Welsby, 2002, 190-191). Török (1997, 174) suggests that this type of kiln can be closely paralleled with the Kushite kilns of previous periods.

Two pottery kilns dated between the transitional and the Early Christian period (c. AD 550 to c. AD 850) were discovered by Godlewski in site R1 at Old Dongola during the Polish excavations of 1986-1987. The kilns were recorded and studied by Pluskota (1991; 1994). Pottery fragments from the local area were also dated to the same period. The first pottery kiln consisted of two chambers and resembled other cylindrical updraft kilns from Nubia, as described and published by Adams (1986a, 32-33). The construction was made out of mudbricks, and the furnace chamber’s diameter was 3m. The second kiln adjoined the first, and several important elements, such as the supporting arch, were recorded despite their poor condition. It was postulated that these two kilns belonged to a large pottery workshop that is still covered by the modern settlement. Inside a basin dug a short distance from the second kiln, a large plate fragment of Aswani origin was discovered. This sherd dates to the fifth to sixth centuries AD and appears to have been used as a mixing tool for clay or paint (Pluskota, 1991, 34-35).

Six kilns dated to the Ballana period (or X-Group period, dated between c. AD 400 and c. AD 550) were located by Adams at Debeira East during the 1960-1963 survey of the West Bank area from Faras to Gemai. In most of these cases, only the lower parts of the lower firing chambers survived over time. Even so, these were typical cylindrical updraught kilns, also found at other local sites, and are still in use at Qena and other Egyptian pottery production centres today (Adams, 2005, 112). These kilns were tied to the production of classic X-Group wares during their first phase of operation, while during their last phase, production moved to Transitional wares and a few Early Christian red wares (Adams, 2005, 112-113).

Two Meroitic kilns (c. 350 BC-c. AD 400) were located by Adams during the same survey of the West Bank area from Faras to Gemai. Adams (2005, 4-5) suggests that during the Meroitic period, this specific area was able to support pottery production alongside agricultural activities because of the alluvial resources, which were much more abundant than in the rocky territory of Batn al-Hajjar to the south. The first possible kiln structure (6-B-17) was discovered in Argin (Adams, 1962, 64). It was a circular brick construction with an internal diameter of 1.3 m. The diameter was similar to that of other known pottery kilns discovered at Faras (24-E-21), Serra (24-N-3), and Debeira (24-R-23), but this specific structure was built entirely above ground, with vertical walls. The second pottery kiln (5-0-19) was discovered at Abdel Qadir. This was a typical cylindrical, double-chambered kiln made of mud bricks. The kiln's structure was similar to that at Argin, built entirely above ground. Elements such as the interior arches that supported the firing chamber and the stoke hole were also identifiable (Adams, 2005, 46-47). According to Adams (2005, 47), the wares found near these kilns were possibly Meroitic, or else earlier, but definitely not of X-Group or Christian times.

The 1997 excavations at Musawwarat es Sufra by Edwards (1999) revealed a pottery production site that could provide interesting insights into Meroitic pottery production. Large concentrations of Meriotic pottery, including both painted and stamped finewares, were found at the north-east corner of courtyard 224 or the Great Enclosure. According to Edwards (1999, 7), “such fine materials have probably not been found on any settlement site in recent times”, while the only substantial collection of finewares before that came from Meroe during the 1910-1914 excavations by Garstang (Edwards, 1999, 7). In addition, three cylindrical potter’s stamps were recovered, which have no parallels in Meroitic contexts. On the contrary, these stamps match Roman manufacturing traditions. One of them carries a leaf motif, and the other a linear motif (Edwards, 1999, 12). Other connections with technologies employed in the Romano-Egyptian production have been identified in relation to a potter’s wheel from the same site. Similar Egyptian examples have been discussed by Powell (1955, 309), and comparisons can be made with a number of stone 'extra-low' pottery wheels discussed by Hope (1991). A similar wheel comes from Tell el-Daba in the Eastern Delta region of North Egypt, as described by Arnold and Bourriau (1993, fig. 87A).

Comparison of the Musawwarat finewares with material from Meroe graves suggests that production at Musawwarat es Sufra probably began in the first half of the first century AD and extended to the end of the same century (Edwards, 1999, 40). Other ceramic evidence indicates that Meroitic fineware production may have occurred at various centres (Edwards, 1999; Hintze, 1971); a similar conclusion is suggested by Smith (1996) after examining the distribution of Meroitic finewares in the same area. It is unlikely that Musawwarat es Sufra was a major production centre (Edwards, 1999, 40). Although its location would have been suitable for providing the necessary raw materials for pottery production (clay, water, fuel), Hintze (1973, 298) suggests that the site operated primarily as a pilgrimage centre. Edwards (1999, 40) suggests that the “apparent abundance of finewares may be explained by their use in religious and/or royal ceremonies”.

More recent works by Edwards and Salih revealed a Meroitic kiln within the settlement of Kedurma, north of the Third Cataract, and it has been suggested that a workshop may lie in the vicinity (Edwards & Salih, 1992; Edwards, 1995). Although this kiln has not been excavated, it appears similar to Roman-period kilns from Egypt (e.g., from Dakhla Oasis) (Edwards et al., 1987; Hope, 1993).

A series of well-preserved kilns was excavated by Garstang at the northern edge of the city of Meroe during the 1910-14 excavations (Garstang, 1912, 46). These excavations revealed a major production centre of Meroitic fineware and produced a large collection of Meroitic fineware sherds. The kilns were first published by Török (1997, 174, pl.140-143). The connections between Meroitic kilns from Meroe and Roman kilns from Egypt have been discussed by Edwards (1999, 40), who generally suggests that the standard Meroitic kilns used by the first century AD can be characterised as Roman-type kilns. Finally, the oldest Nubian kiln, dated to the Napatan period (between the second half of the sixth century BC and the end of the fifth century BC), was discovered by Ahmed in a potter’s workshop in Kerma (Ahmed, 1992).

In conclusion, the majority of well-preserved pottery kilns associated with Nubian ceramic production date to the post-Meroitic period. These kilns are generally circular, updraught, and divided into two chambers. Similar types of kilns were probably used during the Meroitic period and resembled Egyptian kilns of the Roman and medieval periods; therefore, it can be postulated that the Meroites and the Egyptians employed similar firing technologies, which could be attributed to the diffusion of relevant technological ideas. Furthermore, the recovery of a potter’s wheel and three potter’s stamps in Musawwarat es Sufra indicates connections with Romano-Egyptian production.

Finally, the distribution of excavated kilns and production sites indicates two main regions of Meroitic ceramic production. The first was located in the North of Kush in the area between the Third Cataract and the Batn al-Hajar region (Argin, Debeira East, Faras, Abdel Qadir, Kedurma). Of these kiln sites, Argin and Abdel Qadir are close to the Qasr Ibrim market and appear to have operated during the period examined, the Romano-Meroitic conflicts. The second production area was located south of Kush, close to the capital region. More specifically, Meroe and Musawwarat es Sufra appear to have been large production areas that also functioned during the Meroitic period. All the production sites examined are located near the River Nile, where proximity to clay sources and water would have played a major role.