The Hymns to Zeus by Callimachus and Cleanthes

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The article below was originally written in the form of an undergraduate assignment for the Greek Open University in 2006, during a period when the author's academic skills were still under development. Although the quality of this article does not match the quality of later examples of the same author's work, it is written in a thorough manner and contains useful information to nowadays students and other readers with non-specialised knowledge; therefore, it has been proudly included on this website.

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The author admits that the bibliography for this article is limited, matching the requirements of an undergraduate assignment of this level. The author did not include any additional bibliography during the translation of his work in English due to time and access limitations. It must also be noted that the original bibliography for this article was studied from translated copies in Greek; therefore, the page numbers suggested in the citations below match the page numbers of the translated copies and not the original volumes.

Introduction

This short article is divided in four sections and discusses two hymns of the Hellenistic period, which show some interesting similarities and differences. The first section presents the general characteristics of Hellenistic poetry, which are noted in most compositions of this period. The second section examines these general characteristics in relation to the Hymn to Zeus by Callimachus of Cyrene (c. 310/305 –c. 240 BC). Another Hymn to Zeus was written by the stoic philosopher and poet Cleanthes of Assos (c. 330 BC – c. 230 BC), who was contemporary to Callimachus. The third section of this paper compares the two hymns and discusses the differences that are noted in Cleanthes’ composition, reflecting to his philosophical background. The fourth section concludes on the style of the two poets and the general trends noted in the poetry of their era.

The general characteristics of Hellenistic poetry

The poetry of the Hellenistic period (323 – 31 BC) is influenced by the broader political, cultural and social conditions of that time. Its composition and dissemination is in the Greek language (the Hellenistin Koine) and its popularity is enhanced by the Greek rulers of the Hellenistic kingdoms, who are -in most cases- monarchs and scholars with various intellectual interests. Hellenistic rulers fund public libraries and promote education and the arts by sponsoring and hosting at their courts various philosophers and artists (Fyntikoglou 2001, 24-7).

From a political point of view, the monarchy of the Hellenistic kingdoms results to a political crisis in the democratic city-state system. All political decisions are made by the monarchs, and therefore, monarchy converts the politically active citizens of the Classical period to politically inactive subordinates of kings. This political change results to a social change and a shift towards individualism. The individualistic philosophies of the Hellenistic period guide the people towards personal eudaemony (eudaimonia = εὐδαιμονία), which is described as a feeling of esoteric satisfaction. This tendency takes over many aspects of Hellenistic life, including poetry and the arts (Fyntikoglou 2001, 24-7).

Callimachus of Cyrene is the most typical representative of Hellenistic poetry. He is a philologist, a lexicographer and a scientist, and various pieces of knowledge mirroring his elaborate education are noted in his poetic compositions. These have the form of rare words, the apax legomena (ἅπαξ λεγόμενα = noted once), rare names and exact descriptions of toponyms (names of places). Callimachus is a manifold poet who produces a variety of compositions, such as hymns, elegiae, iambic and lyric poetry. He promotes a renewal of the poetic discourse through the use of traditional material without extreme imitations of the Classical tradition. Furthermore, he promotes a quantitative reduction of the text (ολιγοστιχία = oligostichia) and a detailed and careful elaboration of words (Fyntikoglou 2001, 57-64).

In relation to his techniques, Callimachus reduces the main events of the traditional plot and emphasises on insignificant facts of the original myth. His compositions are characterised by humour, subtlety, subversions in the expected plot, allusions to places and people that are not directly named, as well as use of strange words (Fyntikoglou 2001, 68-9). The protagonists are not as important as they are traditionally believed to be; their personalities are shrunk, demythologised and given a daily tone. Emphasis is placed on the psychology of the protagonists as children and there is mention to unknown features and events from their lives, which are employed to stress the poet's eloquence. Controversial issues are often raised, while the courtly character of the compositions is obvious (Fyntikoglou 2001, 73-5). The scholarly nature of poetry is manifested through the worship of detail; there are realistic descriptions of objects, situations and human emotions, while emphasis is placed on the actuality and special gravity of each word. This phenomenon is known as formalistic intensity (Fyntikoglou 2001, 28-30).

The Hymn to Zeus by Callimachus

The typical characteristics of Hellenistic poetry described above are noted in the Hymn to Zeus by Callimachus, which also includes some of the poet’s personal particularities. The composition begins with a philological dilemma presented by the poet himself, where he wonders which the best name describing Zeus should be: “...Δικταῖον ἀείσομεν ἠὲ Λυκαῖον...” (Callimachus, Hymn to Zeus, 4). Should Zeus be called Dictaeos (descended from Mount Dicte in Crete) or Lycaeos (descended from the Lycaean Mountains of Arcadia)? In reality, Callimachus’ question is technical as it relates to a debate between the Cretans and the Arcadians, claiming the origins of Zeus’ birthplace. The poet is answering his question emphatically by quoting a statement attributed to the Knossian philosopher Epinemides, who is likely to have lived in the 6th or even 7th century BC: “Κρῆτες ἀεὶ ψεῦσται” (Callimachus, Hymn to Zeus, 8), meaning that the Cretans are always liars.

A similar philological question relates to the division of power among the gods. According to the tradition, the divine powers amongst the Olympians where shared by pure chance (Callimachus, Hymn to Zeus, 61-4). Callimachus explains that the Danaid poets are lying when they speak about a lottery (κλῆρον) of divine powers (Callimachus, Hymn to Zeus, 60-61), a statement which automatically places Homer’s views under question (Lesky 1981, 975-6). Callimachus’ answer is again straight forward, claiming that Zeus won his seat on the throne of Mount Olympus by personal value (Callimachus, Hymn to Zeus, 66-7). By employing a game of questions and answers, the poet projects his knowledge and scholarly education to the audience, including his competence in issues of mythological and philosophical nature.

By following a similar tactic, Callimachus demonstrates his geographical knowledge by a thorough review of toponyms and names of their inhabitants. The inhabitants of Peloponnese are called Apidanees (Ἀπιδανῆες) (Callimachus, Hymn to Zeus, 15); the inhabitants of Crete are called Cydones (Κύδωνες) (Callimachus, Hymn to Zeus, 45); Parassia is described as a bush-covered mountain (“...ἔσκεν ὄρος θάμνοισι περισκεπές...”) (Callimachus, Hymn to Zeus, 11); and finally, Panakra are mountains that belong to the Mount Idi complex (“...Ἰδαίοις ἐν ὄρεσσι, τά τε κλείουσι Πάνακρα...”) (Callimachus, Hymn to Zeus, 51). Callimachos also demonstrates a thorough understanding of mythology and presents some rare details from it: Adresteia was the Melia who used to put baby Zeus in bed (“...σὲ δ᾽ ἐκοίμισεν Ἀδρήστεια…”) (Callimachus, Hymn to Zeus, 47); Amaltheia was the goat that fed baby Zeus with milk (“...σὺ δ᾽ ἐθήσαο πίονα μαζόν αἰγὸς Ἀμαλθείης...”) (Callimachus, Hymn to Zeus, 49-50); finally, the Courites were those who were looking after Zeus and danced the prylin dance around him to cover his cries (“...οὖλα δὲ Κούρητές σε περὶ πρύλιν ὠρχήσαντο τεύχεα πεπλήγοντες…”) (Callimachus, Hymn to Zeus, 53-4).

The Hymn to Zeus contains a number of rare words, which communicate simple meanings in complicated wording, and are used to stress Callimachus’ broad grammatical knowledge. A characteristic example is the word Ogygion (ὠγύγιον) (Callimachus, Hymn to Zeus, 14), meaning “from the time of Ogyges”, which is used to declare the old age of a certain location, as with the name Apidanees (Ἀπιδανῆες) (Callimachus, Hymn to Zeus, 15), which is the old name for the Peloponnesians. According to the Abbreviated Encyclopaedic Dictionary of (the newspaper) ‘Proia’ (Zeugolis 1932, 2354), Ogyges was the mythical king of Thebes in Boeotia, who was also the founder of the city of Eleusis in West Attica and the city of Thebes in Egypt.

Callimachus’ Hymn to Zeus is significantly reduced compared to the typical religious hymns of previous periods, covering a total of 96 verses. Reduction does not only occur in the hymn’s size, but also in the qualities and the character of the hymn’s main protagonist, the mighty and terrifying god Zeus. In verses 42-55 Zeus is portrayed as an innocent baby with the typical psychological, biological and behavioural characteristics of early childhood: his umbilicus falls off, he cries, he is breastfed and he sleeps, while in verses 55-56, teenage Zeus grows his first facial hair. The hymn’s protagonist is stripped off his majestic status and becomes an everyday human being, with qualities and behaviour that are no different from anyone else’s.

The narration of the events concerning the life of Zeus are limited in his childhood and adolescence. His main achievements as a powerful god are carefully concealed, as for example his role in the battle of the Titans, which has been previously described in Hesiod’s Theogony. Instead, Callimachus emphasises on minor incidents from Zeus’ life, namely his childhood in Crete.

The royal character of Callimachus' poetry and his relationship with the Ptolemaic court are evident throughout the text. Zeus is the protector of all lords (Callimachus, Hymn to Zeus, 73) and appoints human kings by his personal and divine will (Callimachus, Hymn to Zeus, 79-80). Callimachus suggests that the kings ascend to their thrones and possess their powers in the same way that Zeus does. Zeus’ ascension to the Olympian throne was determined by his personal value and not by vote or luck. Zeus’ brothers admitted his superiority and resigned from claiming the throne. Callimachus uses this information in analogy to Ptolemy Ceraunous (c. 319-279 BC), who resigned in favour of his brother Ptolemy II Philadelphus (c. 308-246 BC), who used to be Callimahus’ patron (Lesky 1981, 976). Later on, Callimachus flatters Ptolemy II by saying that he is a worthy king, who thinks ahead of everybody else, and whatever he decides at dawn, he makes sure it is ready by nightfall (Callimachus, Hymn to Zeus, 86-7). This is why Callimachus is asking Zeus to favour his friends, “...ἅ τ᾽ ἐμοῖσι φίλοις ἐνδέξια φαίνοις...” (Callimachus, Hymn to Zeus, 69), meaning his patron, Ptolemy II.

Callimachus’ views on life follow the broader spectrum of individualistic philosophy of the Hellenistic period. This is evident in the final verses of his poem, which have the form of a brief obsecration: “Give virtue and wealth. Without virtue, wealth would not elevate a man, nor virtue without wealth. Give virtue and wealth”. (“...δίδου δ᾽ ἀρετήν τ᾽ ἄφενός τε· οὔτ᾽ ἀρετῆς ἄτερ ὄλβος ἐπίσταται ἄνδρας ἀέξειν, οὔτ᾽ ἀρετὴ ἀφένοιο· δίδου δ᾽ ἀρετήν τε καὶ ὄλβον”) (Callimachus, Hymn to Zeus, 94-6). Here, material wealth, which is idealised in the Hellenistic world, is not enough to exalt a man without personal virtue; and still, personal virtue on its own is not enough to exalt a man without material wealth. Such views demonstrate the subtlety in maintaining personal balance during the pursuit of wealth, which represents a typical human goal of the Hellenistic period, and the pursuit of virtue, which used to be the most important human goal of the preceding Classical antiquity.

A comparison between Callimachus and the Stoic poet Cleanthes

As with Callimachus’ hymn, the Hymn to Zeus by Cleanthes is a product of the Hellenistic period. Although both compositions are relatively contemporary, the hymn by Cleanthes presents essential differences compared to the hymn by Callimachus and does not follow the broader norms noted in Hellenistic poetry.

Cleanthes’ composition is a religious hymn that strictly praises the name of Zeus. Cleanthes does not reference any geographical, philological or scientific knowledge as Callimachus does and his hymn has no courtly character. The qualities and the life of Zeus are not discussed, but instead, his divine nature is overstressed in a series of philosophical references, which describe the cosmos of the Stoic philosophers. Any reference to the human nature is completely absent. The hymn and the praises to Zeus function as an expression of Stoic theology, and therefore, the hymn has been described as “the most beautiful composition of stoic piety” (Lesky 1981, 933).

In relation to its structure, the hymn consists of 39 verses and is shorter compared to that by Callimachus. The hymn by Callimachus is divided in six parts: there is the philological debate on the god’s descent; stories from Zeus’ childhood; a description of Zeus’ qualities and their relationship with the qualities of a monarch; the praises to the monarch; the obsecration and the valediction to the god. The hymn by Cleanthes is divided in four parts: the invocation to the god, the main body of the hymn, which numbers the qualities of Zeus, the obsecration, and finally the valediction. These elements characterise the traditional form of a religious hymn; however, the content is different and has been adjusted according to the Stoic religious views (Stephanopoulos 2020, 210).

The content presented in the hymn by Callimachus follows the philological traditions of his time. Callimachus prefers to emphasise on certain episodes from the life of Zeus, such as his childhood and this transportation to Crete, or the way he assumed power among the other gods. At the same time, the traditional theological structure of his hymn is altered by the integration of a human form, that of King Ptolemy II. Although the Ptolemies were considered divine and were worshipped as gods according to the ancient Egyptian traditions, the integration of a human king in a hymn to a god offers an anthropocentric tone to Callimachus’ composition. By contrast, Cleanthes’ hymn contains a variety of philosophical views and other religious ideas, which are associated with the theories of the Stoic school. Cleanthes calls Zeus “πολυώνυμε” (polyonyme = the one with multiple names) (Cleanthes, Hymn to Zeus, 1), which relates the Stoic belief in god’s multiple nature: reason, law, destiny and forethought (Stephanopoulos 2020, 210-11). The reference to the “ἀμφήκη πυρόεντ᾽ αἰειζώοντα κεραυνόν” (Cleanthes, Hymn to Zeus, 10), “the sharp, sleepless, fiery thunder”, associates with the revival of Heraclitian theories in Stoic philosophy, and more specifically, the belief that the fire of creation signifies the end of each cosmic circle, introducing the birth of a new one (Stephanopoulos 2002, 210-11).

According to the Stoic philosophers, the universe consists of four elements, two of which are active (fire and air) and two are passive (earth and water). This belief is presented in verses 15-16 “...οὐδέ τι γίγνεται ἔργον ἐπὶ χθονὶ σοῦ δίχα, δαῖμον,
οὔτε κατ᾽ αἰθέριον θεῖον πόλον, οὔτ᾽ ἐνὶ πόντῳ...”, where Cleanthes states that “without you, oh god, nothing takes place on the ground, or in the divine air, or in the sea”. As noted in verses 20-21 (“...ὧδε γὰρ εἰς ἓν πάντα συνήρμοκας ἐσθλὰ κακοῖσιν, ὥσθ᾽ ἕνα γίγνεσθαι πάντων λόγον αἰὲν ἐόντα”…), the Stoic philosophers believed that both good and bad formed a combined and unique element. Furthermore, good and bad interacted in the fulfilment of a divine plan (Stephanopoulos 2002, 213). In verses 29-31 (“...ἄλλοι δ᾽ εἰς ἄνεσιν καὶ σώματος ἡδέα ἔργα…...ἐπ᾽ ἄλλοτε δ᾽ ἄλλα φέροντα, σπεύδοντες μάλα πάμπαν ἐναντία τῶνδε γενέσθαι...”), Cleanthes criticises the views of the Epicureans on the conquest of Eudaimonia (happiness) through living an easy life and by enjoying pleasures of the flesh (Hedone). According to the Stoics, Eudaimonia is gained through virtue (arete), which is achieved by the implication of the logos (logic or balance) in human life, which means living according to the rules of nature and god (Coucouzeli 2001, 125-6). This understanding of Eudaimonia (happiness) not only contrasts with the Epicureans, but also with Callimachus. In his Hymn to Zeus, happiness is defined as a combination of virtue and material wealth (Callimachus, Hymn to Zeus, 90-96). By contrast, the Stoics based their happiness solely on virtue and neglected the contribution of wealth or any other form of material possession (Coucouzeli 2001, 125).

Conclusions and summary

The Hymn to Zeus by Callimachus represents the most typical characteristics of Hellenistic poetry. These are the reduction of the protagonist’s character, the omission of events that were considered important by previous traditions, the replacement of primary events by secondary events, and finally, the composition’s anthropocentric and courtly (royal) character. Callimachus’ style is both scholarly and ordinary: he demonstrates complicated philological and philosophical knowledge; he carefully emphasises on the gravity of specific words he uses; he adds an anthropocentric and daily tone in his narration; while at the same time, he praises royal and divine power by equalising gods and kings. By contrast, the Hymn to Zeus by Cleanthes, which was also composed during the Hellenistic period, does not follow the typical conventions of its time. The hymn follows previous traditions in relation to its structure and content, which aims solely in praising the name of Zeus. At the same time, the hymn becomes a medium to communicate the philosophical, cosmological and theological ideas of the Stoics.

Bibliography

Coucouzeli, A., 2000, ‘Philosophy and Science’, in Vasiliou-Papageorgiou, V. (ed.) Introduction to Greek Civilisation, Volume 2, Important Hallmarks of Greek Culture, Patras: Greek Open University, 107-152.
Fyntikoglou, V., 2001, ‘Callimachus’, in Melista, A. (ed.) Letters 1: Ancient Greek and Byzantine Philology, Volume 2, The Hellenistic and Imperial Periods, Patra: Greek Open University, 57-80.
Lesky, A., 1981, A History of Ancient Greek Literature, fifth edition, translated by A.G. Tsombanaki, Thessaloniki: Kyriakidis Bros. SA.
Stephanopoulos, Th.K., Tsitsiridis, S., Antzouli, L. and Kritseli, G., 2002, Anthology of Ancient Greek Literature, second edition, Athens: OEDB.
Zeugolis, G. (ed.), 1932, Abbreviated Encyclopaedic Dictionary of (the newspaper) ‘Proia’, Athens: Proia

Original sources

Callimachus, Hymn to Zeus
Cleanthes, Hymn to Zeus