Ancient drama remakes in post-war Greek cinema: Electra (1962)

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The article below was originally written in the form of an undergraduate assignment for the Greek Open University in 2008, during a period when the author's academic skills were still under development. Although the quality of this article does not match the quality of later examples of the same author's work, it is written in a thorough manner and contains useful information to nowadays students and other readers with non-specialised knowledge; therefore, it has been proudly included on this website.

The reader needs to be warned that the original assignment, on which this article was based on, was written in Greek and was intended to be read by specialised academics. Despite the author's best intentions to present his essay in the clearest way possible, some points and arguments might still be lost in translation. The author recommends that for any unknown words or specialised vocabulary, the readers should refer to the web for additional information.

The author admits that the bibliography for this article is limited, matching the requirements of an undergraduate assignment of this level. The author did not include any additional bibliography during the translation of his work in English due to time and access limitations. It must also be noted that the original bibliography for this article was studied from translated copies in Greek; therefore, the page numbers suggested in the citations below match the page numbers of the translated copies and not the original volumes.

Introduction

This article discusses the film Electra (1962) by the Greek-Cypriot director Michael Cacoyiannis (1922-2011). It focuses on an important attempt to produce an ancient Greek drama remake for the big screen, which introduced a variety of innovations to post-war Greek cinema. The paper is divided in four sections. The first section discusses the general tendencies in Greek cinema in the early 1960s and points out some exceptional film directors who stood out of the mainstream productions. One of these directors was Michael Cacoyiannis, whose life and work are briefly presented in the second section of this paper. The third section focuses on the film Electra and the members of its production team, as well as the awards it received in domestic and international festivals. It examines the film’s differences in relation to other Greek films from the same period; it discusses the innovations introduced by Cacoyiannis and the ways in which the film diverts from the general norm. The final section presents a summary and some general conclusions in relation to how Cacoyiannis’ Electra contributed to the evolution and international promotion of Greek cinema.

Greek cinema in the 1960s

The 1960s are characterised by a mass production of Greek films, accompanied by a standardisation of stereotypical cinema characters and ideological motifs, which target the urban petty bourgeois of modern Greece. Film production is defined by the popular preferences of big film companies, such Finos Film and Clack Film, which are mostly interested in specific types of commercial productions. The directors and script-writers of the time adapt their work to the needs of the film companies and create films that are designed to sell and become commercially successful. At the same time, there are actors who establish themselves in characteristic roles and form a consolidated Greek star-system. Nikos Xanthopoulos, for example, becomes widely known as “the people’s boy” (το παιδί του λαού). The story themes of older film productions are adapted, enriched and finally standardised in order to fit specific ideological views and social messages (Athanasatou 2002, 95-6).

During the 1960s, melodrama is at its greatest peak, particularly in the second screening cinemas of poor working class neighbourhoods. More specifically, most of the plays of this decade are family melodramas, which speak about social distinctions, unemployment, mass migration and relationship problems between couples. The end of the film is always happy and there is emphasis in luck, which is promoted as a powerful mechanism that defies and overturns social conventions. The only exceptions to this norm during the 1960s are melodramas which focus on morally and socially condemned women. Such protagonists are usually occupied in prostitution and live in a world of sin, crime and deception, which is identified as the underworld of the large industrial ports of the country. The most important of these plays are Stella (Στέλλα) by Michael Cacoyiannis (1955), Downfall (Κατήφορος) by Yiannis Dalianidis (1961/2) and The Red Lights (Κόκκινα Φανάρια) by Vasilis Georgiadis (1963/4). Such films produce new social reflections and discuss the issue of female freedom, which challenges the existing social and ideological perceptions of the time (Athanasatou 2002, 97-102).

The 1960s also introduce a series of commercial films, which stand out in relation to the average norm of Greek melodrama. Some examples of such films are Never on Sundays (Ποτέ την Κυριακή) by Zil Dassin (1960), Dream District (Συνοικία το Όνειρο) by Alekos Alexandrakis (1961), Lola (Λόλα) by Dinos Dimopoulos (1964), Zorba the Greek (Αλέξης Ζορμπάς) by Michael Cacoyiannis (1964), The Enemies (Εχθροί) by Dinos Dimopoulos (1965), etc. Such productions differ to the popular norms of the 1960s in relation to the use of artistic-folk music, the bypassing of established clichés in the scripts, the absence of a happy end, the realistic approach in the organisation of art features and the positive approach towards folk culture. Such films introduce social critique for the first time; they promote unexpected situations and radicalism; they cultivate the ideology of democracy and they promote the political culture of new social strata, such as students, intellectuals and artists. This approach is characterised as ‘qualitative artistic popularity’ in the cinema of the 1960s, which is followed by independent directors such as Dinos Dimopoulos, Vasilis Georgiadis, Michael Cacoyiannis and Zil Dassin (Athanasatou 2002, 102-104).

Prank comedy is a commercial genre that also appears for the first time in the 1960s and becomes popular to the wide audience. The themes of prank comedy are taken from the daily life of ordinary people and are based on typical misunderstandings, intrigues, the pregnancy-marriage theme, popular perceptions regarding male and female equality, popular entertainment themes such as the buzuki night-life, and finally the ‘revelation’ theme, where poor yet honest people reveal cunning plots against rich aristocratic victims.

Another genre of significant popularity during the 1960s is the musical, where Yiannis Dalianidis is the main director of such films. Throughout the 1960s, musicals sell most of annual cinema tickets in the country and are widely consumed by the urban middle classes of the first screening areas. The great commercial success of musicals is due a new ideology of social mobility, which homogenises the urban classes. The plot is usually based on groups of youths, which descend from different social strata, yet they interact together and they produce a form of social reconciliation. The protagonists are shown as neutral and homogenised consumers of an economically developed society, in which luxury is accessible to everybody without any exceptions. At the same time, musicals promote the Western social standards and popular ideologies (e.g. the independent woman model); they stress the differences between Western popular culture and Greek folklore; and finally, they promote an ‘American-style’ reality with distinct songs, music, dances, cars, clothes, electrical appliances, etc., which may not necessarily relate to the Greek reality of that time (Athanasatou 2002, 102-104).

The personality and the work of Michael Cacoyiannis

As noted earlier, Michael Cacoyiannis is a director of the so-called ‘qualitative artistic popularity’ movement of the 1960s. He is Greek-Cypriot, educated in Britain, and appears in Greek cinema in the mid-1950s. His films promote the idea of Hellenicity through the eyes of the ‘foreign Greek’, who is relieved from the nation’s historical dramas of the previous three decades. His first film is the comedy Sunday Wake-up (Κυριακάτικο ξύπνημα), which he directs in 1953, at the age of 31. From his early films, Cacoyiannis employs high-velocity career actors such as Elli Lambeti (1926-1983), Dimitris Horn (1921-1998), Margarita Papageorgiou (1935-2021), etc., and also experienced camera operators, such as Alevize Orphanelli, Kostas Theodoridis and Walter Lassally, who focus in the representation of clear depth and realistic motion. With his second film, Stella (Στέλλα) in 1955, Cacoyiannis promotes Melina Mercouri as a modern symbol of female liberation. Cacoyiannis also promotes the newly developed artistic music of the 1960s, particularly the compositions by Mikis Theodorakis (1925-2021) and Manos Chatzidakis (1925-1994). In 1956 he directs the film The Girl in Black (Το Κορίτσι με τα Μαύρα), through which he cauterises the oppressive social beliefs and the anachronistic moral standards of the Greek society. In 1958 he directs the film The Last Lie (Το Τελευταίο Ψέμα) and in 1960 the films The Lost Soul (Το Χαμένο Κορμί) and Heroica (Ερόικα), which attract negative international critique despite their important conquests in relation to their forms and dramaturgy. In 1961, he directs his first ancient tragedy remake, which is Electra by Euripides. Despite the previous remake of Antigone by Giorgos Tzavellas in 1960, Cacoyiannis’ direction is revolutionary as he is the first to consider the balance between ancient drama and modern cinema. At the same time, he is the first to introduce the Soviet approach in photography into Greek cinema, as well as the Hollywood production style and the European melodrama approach next to his own style. Following Electra, in 1964 he directs the film Zorba the Greek, which is based on the novel Alexis Zorbas by Nikos Kazantzakis, starring famous actors such as Anthony Quinn, Erene Papa and Alan Bates. His 1966 film When the Fish Got Ashore (Όταν τα Ψάρια Βγήκαν στη Στεριά) is one of his least famous creations, where he satirises nuclear threat at the time of the Cold War. During the Colonels’ Dictatorship (1967-1974) Cacoyiannis migrates to Spain, where he films the tragedy Troades by Euripides, following the prototype of his Electra. In Troades he deals with the ever-current problem of ‘man against man’ as posed by Euripides, yet from the point of view of a director who has witnessed the Prague Spring movement (1969), the Vietnam War (1955-1975) and French May riots (1968). In 1974 Cacoyiannis films the documentary Attila ‘74 denouncing the atrocities of the Turkish army during the invasion of Cyprus. In 1977 he produces his third ancient tragedy remake, Iphigenia en Aulidi by Euripides, which is the last part of the Atreid family circle. This time, he uses ancient tragedy to discuss issues from the current reality and explore the complexity of human psycho-synthesis. In 1985 he films Sweet Motherland (Γλυκιά Πατρίδα), which is inspired by recent events from the Pinochet Dictatorship in Chile (1973-1990). His Last film Up-Down and Sideways (Πάνω Κάτω και Πλαγίως), which talks about homosexuality, is filmed in 1992. Cacoyiannis’ filming career lasts forty years, during which he produces a total of fourteen films (Moschovakis 1995, 57-69).

The film Elecrta by Michael Cacoyiannis

Electra is filmed between 1961 and 1962, and Michael Cacoyiannis is both responsible for the scenario and the direction. The film’s music is composed by Mikis Theodorakis, the sets and costumes are designed by Spyros Vasileiou and the photo editing is performed by Walter Lassally. The main protagonists are Eirini Papa (Electra), Yiannis Fertis (Orestes), Aleka Katseli (Clytemnestra), Phoebos Razis (Aegisthos), Notis Pergialis (farmer) and Manos Katrakis (school teacher). The film participates in the 1962 Cannes Festival and receives the annual ‘best film remake’ award; it receives a sound quality award by the Supreme Technical Committee for French cinema, and also receives a special award from the Internation Youth Association. In the 1962 Thessaloniki Festival, is receives the ‘best Greek film of the year’ award, the director’s award, the first and second female actress’ awards, the second male actor’s award and the ‘best music’ award. It is offered a Value Diploma award in the 1962 Edinburgh Festival and a special film award in the Acapulco Festival during the same year. In 1963, it receives the O. Selznick Silver Daphne award at the Berlin Festival and the Ferminal 1963 award in Belgium. In 1964, it receives an award from the Cinema and Film Critique Press Association in Antwerp (Kolonias 1995, 44).

Cacoyiannis’ aim is to create a new film based on Euripides’ Electra and not to direct a film remake of the actual ancient drama, adapted to the modern conventions of the film industry. His intentions finally lead to a loose restructure of the original play, which initially attracts negative critique from cinema commentators. Cacoyiannis does not follow the ‘time and place’ framework of the original drama; instead, he changes the episodes’ order, he adds or subtracts actors in various scenes, he reduces the narration sections, he replaces some long monologues with live scenes and he breaks down the plot in different sets (e.g. in Agamemnon’s bath chamber, in the farmer’s house, in the Mycenaean palace, in the Argive plain, etc.). Time is not manipulated with the use of flash-backs; instead, the director expands the play’s time sequence in relation to the original drama and presents the events in linear succession divided in three interconnected sections. In the first section, the viewer learns about past events and foresees Agamemnon’s assassination at a time when Orestes and Electra are still children. In the second section, the viewer sees the fake wedding between Electra and the poor farmer, as well as Electra’s arrival at Agamemnon’s tomb. Both events are absent in Euripides’ original play. In the third section, which coincides with the events presented by Euripides, the viewer sees Orestes’ arrival in Mycenae, the recognition scene between Orestes and Electra, the murder of Aegisthus and Clytemnestra, and the final end of the play, where the two main protagonists escape together. The events described in the third section last one day, which not only limits the duration of the film’s plot, but also complies with Aristotle’s 24-hour-duration rule for ancient dramas. The appearance of the Dioscuroi for the resolution of the plot does not take place, as opposed to Euripides’ original scenario, where the Dioscuroi appear as part of the Deus ex Machina convention. Despite the above changes, Euripides’ original views and philosophical approaches do not change; instead Cacoyiannis harmonises himself with Euripides: he presents his protagonists as diachronic, eternal, self-motivated and independent from any form of divine volition (Delvedouri 2006/7, 25-30).

The most characteristic feature of Cacoyiannis’ Electra is the neatness of its sets, which cannot be tied to a specific period, and therefore, make the film diachronic (Christie 2003, 241). Cacoyiannis presents a timeless drama by stripping it off any conventions, which could limit it within a specific space and time framework. Of course, there are many features that are ‘borrowed’ from the Greek antiquity, such as Agamemnon’s Archaic body armour, the frequent use of profile shots, which remind of ancient pottery representations, the stretched eyebrows of Clytemnestra and her Trojan escorts, which are also encountered in Minoan frescoes, the Cyclopean Walls of Mycenae, the sphenoid-like fonts listing the film’s participants, and many others. With a second and more thorough analysis, however, the viewer also detects daily features, which express Hellenicity without time restrictions. Such timeless features are the bright sunlight, the olive trees, the harvesting of the olives by whipping, the daily clothes of the farmers, the black-dressed women, the wooden carriages, the donkeys, the lime-painted white huts, the ceramic water containers, the shepherd with his flock, the idea of hospitality (offered to Orestes and Pylades by both the farmer and Aegisthus), the local feast, the vineyards, the wine press, the traditional roasted lamb and many others.

The film is significantly different compared to the mainstream productions of the 1960s, not only in relation to its theme, but also in relation to its means of artistic expression. There is emphasis on the visual representation of the natural scenery (e.g. sunny versus cloudy sky, dry landscapes, hills covered in olive trees, etc.), while the actors purposely avoid oral communication and most frequently interact with intense gestures, expressive eye glances and dynamic body postures. It is important to note that during the film’s first 17 minutes, there is not even a single word by the actors. Instead, the protagonists ‘speak’ with their bodies; they exchange glances full of meaning and express their emotional cosmos though their body postures and facial contractions. In relation to the latter, it can be argued that Cacoyiannis liberates ancient Greek drama from the constrains of the theatrical face-mask. The actors’ stylisation is combined with meaningful body postures, while at the same time, the direct intersection of their eye glances is purposely avoided in order to stress their introversion. With this technique, Cacoyiannis stresses the deeper emotional struggles of his protagonists and implies their psychological fluctuations.

In relation to his camera angles, Cacoyiannis prefers close-ups which focus on facial expressions. The camera is often placed at low level in order to stress the magnitude of a protagonist’s persona (e.g. in Agamemnon’s arrival scene to Argos), who is filmed from below. In other occasions the camera is placed at high level and the actors are filmed from above in order to diminish their personas (e.g. Clytemnestra’s dead body in the farmer’s house is shown from the ceiling).

The camera’s manipulations allow the participation of natural features in the frame, which add to the plot’s evolution (Moschovakis 1995, 32); when combined with the right montage, such features add to the dramatic conditions characterising specific scenes. For example, the night’s darkness assists to the conspiratorial arrival of Orestes at Argos; the bright and sunny scenery is gradually shadowed by dark clouds on the day of Clytemnestra’s assassination; the rustling of the leaves, the flying of the birds and the whining of the horses accompany the scene of Clytemnestra’s murder. The play between light and shadow on the Mycenaean walls helps Electra to emerge from darkness and present herself to her mother; it is the first scene where Electra’s hair are cut short, symbolising the mourning for her father’s death.

When the dead body of Aegisthus is brought in front of Electra, there are light-bearers with torches, who dissolve the night’s darkness. This specific scene resembles the Christian Epitaph custom and also operates at a symbolic level. In general, the film’s symbolisms are plenty and act subconsciously on the viewer’s mind. Various sounds, such as the running water in Agamemnon’s bath chamber and the clash of the sword on child-Orestes’ shield, allow the viewers to use their imagination and actively connect the events with the film’s scenes. Natural and abrupt sounds are also used to imply the crimes taking place in the story; this convention is used in accordance to the rules of ancient Greek drama, where bloody events do not take place on stage (Delvedouri 2006/7, 29). In the author’s own view, however, the scene of Agamemnon’s murder is particularly brutal, while the visual effect of brutality is supplemented with the picture of running blood on the bathroom’s floor.

The film’s music is an artistic composition by Mikis Theodorakis. It is especially interesting that the film’s songs are not accompanied by any musical instruments; instead, the music is polyphonic and chanted by a chorus of black-dressed women. The wedding song during Electra’s arrival in her new home reminds of folk mourning chants. It can be broken down into two parts. The first two verses are sang solo by the head of the chorus and carry sad messages: “The sun looked upon the Earth from his golden chariot and decided to change his course when he realised the injustice” (1). The third verse is sang by the entire chorus and predicts Electa’s salvation through the resurrection symbolism: “But the day will come, this good day, this time of celebration; the mountains will grow green and the earth will satisfy its thirst”.

In other parts of the film, as for example during the feast organised by Aegisthus, there appear musical instruments, which produce ancient-like sounds (e.g. drums, flutes, harps). The Pontus War Dance implies a sense of Hellenicity, which extends to the dual between Orestes and Aegisthus. The poetic character of the films music is also noted in relation to Electra’s mourning chant, when she visits her father’s grave: “Can you hear me, sweet father, from the other side? My shaved hair has been shaved for you. For you I tear my chicks with my own fingernails”. The traditional mourning chant (threnos = θρήνος), the use of a tripartite iambic 15-syllable verse and the myrtle twig on Agamemnon’s grave are excellent expressions of timeless Hellenicity.

The function of the chorus in the film remake differs in relation to its original function in ancient drama. Cacoyiannis stylises the members of the chorus and places them still while chanting; this approach cancels the rhythmic motion and rhythmic recitation that has been suggested by contemporary German prototypes for ancient drama remakes (Moschovakis 1995, 32).

In relation to his use of symbolisms, Cacoyiannis prefers optical motifs, which associate with the relationships among his protagonists and imply the course of future events. The ‘hand-motif’ (Delvedouri , 2006/7, 31) appears in the film’s most critical moments: Clytemnestra's hand slips into Aegisthus’ hand a little before Agamemnon’s assassination; it slips again off little Electra’s shoulder, who suspects Clytemnestra’s plot and stares at her mother’s hand full of suspicion; a little later, Agamemnon’s hand, which is covered in blood, slips on bath chamber’s floor. In a similar sense, the ‘sword-motif’ is used to imply death: Agamemnon’s sword in the hands of Orestes is a prediction of the murders that are about to follow; the sword, with which Aegisthus enters into a competition with Orestes, as well as the clashing swords of the dancers during the festival, both imply the death of Aegisthus (Moschovakis 1995, 31-2).

Although the story is inspired by mythological events, Cacoyiannis sees it as an opportunity to express modern social reflections. Electra’s dynamic personality, the Freudian passion between father and daughter, and the issue of maternal love which conflicts with hatred and guilt, are all used to bring forward the tragic character of the film’s female protagonist. A little before Clytemnestra enters the farmer’s house to be murdered by her own son, Electra, who is an accessory to the murder, subconsciously warns her: “Mother! Be careful”. It is perhaps the same subconscious reaction noted again in the 1966 film Stella, where Giorgos Fountas warns Melina Mercouri: “Stella, go away...I’m holding a knife”. Such scenes stress the internal conflict between moral duty and human love.

Finally, Cacoyiannis sees his film as an opportunity to denounce the government’s repressive mechanisms and censorship practices, which were common in the 1960s: he depicts Argos as a police-controlled country, where violence, fear and repression guarantee public order. For example, two peasants comment that Clytemnestra tried to murder Electra when she was little as she was afraid of the people’s reaction. The gathering of the two peasants is interrupted by a soldier, who represents the vigilant eyes of law and order. Then, the mourning scene of the female chorus, addressed to Electra, is suddenly interrupted by the arrival of a cavalryman, who dissolves their gathering. Throughout the film, the viewer notices the ‘folk-revolution’ motif somewhere at the background, which is popular in many other cultural expressions during the 1960s. In that sense, it appears likely that Cacoyiannis silently promotes his own social critique to any form of centrally-regulated totalitarianism.

Summary and conclusions

The most popular Greek films during the 1960s are melodramas, prank-comedies and musicals. These are commercially produced by large film companies for the wide audience and are characterised by standardised plot-motifs, popular film stars in characteristic roles and the projection of standardised social ideologies. During the same period, there appear alternative directors, such as Michael Cacoyiannis, who represent what is nowadays described as ‘qualitative artistic popularity’. Such directors produce films, which divert from the main norm in terms of artistic music, artistic image representation, script originality, social critique and the promotion of new ideologies.

Out of a total of fourteen films directed by Michael Cacoyiannis, Electra is the only one that receives three international awards at the 1962 Cannes Festival and six domestic awards at the same year’s Thessaloniki Festival. Electra is a loose remake of the homonymous tragedy by Euripides, which is modified by Cacoyiannis in relation to its time and space, in order to become a timeless drama. Furthermore, Cacoyiannis diverts from the original play in relation to its long monologue successions, use of chorus and final resolution of its plot. One of the film’s main features, even though indirectly shown, is the promotion of Hellenicity with the use of timeless symbolisms, such as the actors’ costumes and the external scenery. The film promotes innovative means of artistic expression, such as the music by Mikis Theodorakis, the communication of the protagonists through glances and gestures, the scenes of prolonged silence, the use of intense body motions and facial contractions, and finally, the excellent camera manipulations by Walter Lassaly. In relation to the latter, the film is dominated by close-ups from various filming angles; there is frequent use of profile shots; camera focusing on symbolic motifs; participation of natural features in the frame; and participation of natural elements, such as light, shadows and sounds, during the film’s main events. Finally, Cacoyiannis projects some modern reflections in relation to the course of Freudian passion, the dynamic nature of the female character, the concept of totalitarianism and folk-revolution.

Bibliography

Athanasatou, Y., 2002, ‘Greek post-war cinema’, in Konstantopoulou, D. (ed.) Modern Greek Theatre (1600-1940) – Cinema, Volume II, Greek Cinema, Patra: Greek Open University, 75-120.
Christie, I. (ed.), 2003, Cinemythology: The Greek Myths in Worldwide Cinema, Thessaloniki: The Thessaloniki Film Festival Press
Delvedouri, E.-A., 2006/7, ‘A tragedy and a film’, in The Electra Cycle, printed programme of the Megaron of Music in Athens, Athens: Megaro Mousikis Athinon.
Goudelis, T., 1995, ‘Three tragedies by Euripides from Cacoyiannis’, in Kolonias, M. (ed.) Michael Cacoyiannis, Athens: Kastaniotis, 57-69.
Kolonias, M., 1995, ‘Electra in Cannes’, in Kolonias, M. (ed.) Michael Cacoyiannis, Athens: Kastaniotis, 144.
Moschovakis, A., 1995, ‘Michael Cacoyiannis: from ethography to tragedy’, in Kolonias, M. (ed.) Michael Cacoyiannis, Athens: Kastaniotis, 17-43.

Filmography

Cacoyiannis, M., 1961/2, Electra, Greece: Finos Film.

Notes

1. The verse in Greek: “Μα θα ’ρθει η μέρα, η μέρα η καλή - η ώρα θα γιορτάσει - θα πρασινίσουν τα βουνά - η γης θα ξεδιψάσει”.
2. The verse in Greek: “Μα θα ’ρθει η μέρα, η μέρα η καλή - η ώρα θα γιορτάσει - θα πρασινίσουν τα βουνά - η γης θα ξεδιψάσει”.
3. The verse in Greek: “Μ’ ακούς πατέρα μου γλυκέ που ’σαι στον κάτω κόσμο - Τα κουρεμένα μου μαλλιά για ‘σένα τα ’χω κόψει. Για ‘σένα με τα νύχια μου τα μάγουλά μου σκίζω”.