Ancient drama remakes in post-war Greek cinema: Electra (1962)

Disclaimer

The article below was originally written as an undergraduate assignment for the Greek Open University in 2008, during a period when the author’s academic skills were still developing. Although the quality of this article does not match that of later examples of the same author’s work, it is written in a thorough manner and contains useful information for students and other readers with non-specialised knowledge; therefore, it has been proudly included on this website.

The reader needs to be warned that the original assignment, on which this article was based, was written in Greek and was intended to be read by specialised academics. Despite the author’s best intentions to present his essay in the clearest way possible, some points and arguments might still be lost in translation. The author recommends that readers consult the web for additional information on any unfamiliar words or specialised vocabulary.

The author admits that the bibliography for this article is limited, as required for an undergraduate assignment of this level. The author did not include any additional bibliography during the translation of his work into English due to time and access limitations. It must also be noted that the original bibliography for this article was studied from translated copies in Greek; therefore, the page numbers suggested in the citations below match the page numbers of the translated copies and not the original volumes.

Introduction

This article discusses the film Electra (1962) by the Greek-Cypriot director Michael Cacoyiannis (1922-2011). It focuses on an important attempt to remake an ancient Greek drama for the big screen, introducing a variety of innovations to post-war Greek cinema. The paper is divided into four sections. The first section discusses the general tendencies in Greek cinema in the early 1960s and highlights exceptional film directors who stood out from the mainstream. One of these directors was Michael Cacoyiannis, whose life and work are briefly presented in the second section of this paper. The third section focuses on the film Electra and its production team, as well as the awards it received at domestic and international festivals. It examines the film’s differences in relation to other Greek films from the same period; it discusses the innovations introduced by Cacoyiannis and the ways in which the film deviates from the general norm. The final section presents a summary and general conclusions regarding how Cacoyiannis’ Electra contributed to the evolution and international promotion of Greek cinema.

Greek cinema in the 1960s

The 1960s are characterised by the mass production of Greek films, accompanied by the standardisation of stereotypical cinema characters and ideological motifs that target the urban petty bourgeoisie of modern Greece. Film production is defined by the popular preferences of big film companies, such Finos Film and Clack Film, which are mostly interested in specific types of commercial productions. The directors and screenwriters of the time adapted their work to the needs of the film companies and created films designed to sell and become commercially successful. At the same time, actors establish themselves in characteristic roles, forming a consolidated Greek star system. Nikos Xanthopoulos, for example, becomes widely known as “the people’s boy” (το παιδί του λαού). The themes of older film productions are adapted, enriched, and finally standardised to fit specific ideological views and social messages (Athanasatou 2002, 95-6).

During the 1960s, melodrama reached its peak, particularly in second-run cinemas in poor working-class neighbourhoods. More specifically, most of the plays of this decade are family melodramas, which speak about social distinctions, unemployment, mass migration and relationship problems between couples. The film's ending is always happy, and luck is emphasised as a powerful force that defies and overturns social conventions. The only exceptions to this norm during the 1960s are melodramas which focus on morally and socially condemned women. Such protagonists are usually occupied in prostitution and live in a world of sin, crime and deception, which is identified as the underworld of the large industrial ports of the country. The most important of these plays are Stella (Στέλλα) by Michael Cacoyiannis (1955), Downfall (Κατήφορος) by Yiannis Dalianidis (1961/2) and The Red Lights (Κόκκινα Φανάρια) by Vasilis Georgiadis (1963/4). Such films provoke new social reflections and discuss the issue of female freedom, challenging the prevailing social and ideological perceptions of the time (Athanasatou 2002, 97-102).

The 1960s also introduced a series of commercial films that stand out from the average norms of Greek melodrama. Some examples of such films are Never on Sundays (Ποτέ την Κυριακή) by Zil Dassin (1960), Dream District (Συνοικία το Όνειρο) by Alekos Alexandrakis (1961), Lola (Λόλα) by Dinos Dimopoulos (1964), Zorba the Greek (Αλέξης Ζορμπάς) by Michael Cacoyiannis (1964), The Enemies (Εχθροί) by Dinos Dimopoulos (1965), etc. Such productions differ from the popular norms of the 1960s in their use of artistic-folk music, their avoidance of established clichés in the scripts, their absence of a happy ending, their realistic approach to the organisation of art features, and their positive attitude towards folk culture. Such films introduce social critique for the first time; they present unexpected situations and radicalism; they cultivate the ideology of democracy; and they foster the political culture of new social strata, such as students, intellectuals, and artists. This approach is characterised as ‘qualitative artistic popularity’ in the cinema of the 1960s, which is followed by independent directors such as Dinos Dimopoulos, Vasilis Georgiadis, Michael Cacoyiannis and Zil Dassin (Athanasatou 2002, 102-104).

Prank comedy is a commercial genre that emerged in the 1960s and became popular with a wide audience. The themes of prank comedy are taken from the daily life of ordinary people and are based on typical misunderstandings, intrigues, the pregnancy-marriage theme, popular perceptions regarding male and female equality, popular entertainment themes such as the buzuki nightlife, and finally, the ‘revelation’ theme, where poor yet honest people reveal cunning plots against rich aristocratic victims.

Another genre of significant popularity during the 1960s is the musical, for which Yiannis Dalianidis is the main director. Throughout the 1960s, musicals accounted for most of the annual cinema tickets in the country and were widely consumed by the urban middle classes in the first screening areas. The great commercial success of musicals is due to a new ideology of social mobility, which homogenises the urban classes. The plot is usually based on groups of youths from different social strata who interact and achieve social reconciliation. The protagonists are portrayed as neutral, homogenised consumers in an economically developed society, where luxury is accessible to everyone without exception. At the same time, musicals promote the Western social standards and popular ideologies (e.g. the independent woman model); they stress the differences between Western popular culture and Greek folklore; and finally, they promote an ‘American-style’ reality with distinct songs, music, dances, cars, clothes, electrical appliances, etc., which may not necessarily relate to the Greek reality of that time (Athanasatou 2002, 102-104).

The personality and the work of Michael Cacoyiannis

As noted earlier, Michael Cacoyiannis is a director of the so-called ‘qualitative artistic popularity’ movement of the 1960s. He is Greek-Cypriot, educated in Britain, and appeared in Greek cinema in the mid-1950s. His films promote the idea of Hellenicity through the eyes of the ‘foreign Greek’, who is relieved from the nation’s historical dramas of the previous three decades. His first film is the comedy Sunday Wake-up (Κυριακάτικο ξύπνημα), which he directed in 1953, at the age of 31. From his early films, Cacoyiannis employs high-velocity career actors such as Elli Lambeti (1926-1983), Dimitris Horn (1921-1998), Margarita Papageorgiou (1935-2021), etc., and also experienced camera operators, such as Alevize Orphanelli, Kostas Theodoridis and Walter Lassally, who focus on the representation of clear depth and realistic motion. With his second film, Stella (Στέλλα) in 1955, Cacoyiannis promotes Melina Mercouri as a modern symbol of female liberation. Cacoyiannis also promotes the newly developed artistic music of the 1960s, particularly the compositions by Mikis Theodorakis (1925-2021) and Manos Chatzidakis (1925-1994). In 1956, he directed the film The Girl in Black (Το Κορίτσι με τα Μαύρα), through which he cauterises the oppressive social beliefs and the anachronistic moral standards of the Greek society. In 1958, he directed the film The Last Lie (Το Τελευταίο Ψέμα), and in 1960, the films The Lost Soul (Το Χαμένο Κορμί) and Heroica (Ερόικα), which attracted negative international criticism despite their significant achievements in form and dramaturgy. In 1961, he directed his first ancient tragedy remake, which was Electra by Euripides. Despite the previous remake of Antigone by Giorgos Tzavellas in 1960, Cacoyiannis’ direction is revolutionary as he is the first to consider the balance between ancient drama and modern cinema. At the same time, he is the first to introduce the Soviet approach to photography into Greek cinema, as well as the Hollywood production style and the European melodrama approach, alongside his own style. Following Electra in 1964, he directed Zorba the Greek, based on the novel Alexis Zorbas by Nikos Kazantzakis, starring Anthony Quinn, Irene Papas, and Alan Bates. His 1966 film When the Fish Got Ashore (Όταν τα Ψάρια Βγήκαν στη Στεριά) is one of his least famous works, satirising the nuclear threat during the Cold War. During the Colonels’ Dictatorship (1967-1974), Cacoyiannis migrated to Spain, where he filmed the tragedy Troades by Euripides, following the prototype of his Electra. In Troades, he addresses the ever-present problem of ‘man against man’ as posed by Euripides, yet from the perspective of a director who has witnessed the Prague Spring movement (1969), the Vietnam War (1955-1975), and the French May riots (1968). In 1974, Cacoyiannis filmed the documentary Attila ‘74 denouncing the atrocities of the Turkish army during the invasion of Cyprus. In 1977, he produced his third ancient tragedy remake, Iphigenia in Aulis by Euripides, which is the last part of the Atreid family circle. This time, he uses ancient tragedy to discuss contemporary issues and explore the complexity of human psychosynthesis. In 1985, he filmed Sweet Motherland (Γλυκιά Πατρίδα), inspired by recent events during the Pinochet Dictatorship in Chile (1973-1990). His Last film, Up-Down and Sideways (Πάνω Κάτω και Πλαγίως), which explores homosexuality, was filmed in 1992. Cacoyiannis’ film career lasted forty years, during which he produced fourteen films (Moschovakis 1995, 57-69).

The film Elecrta by Michael Cacoyiannis

Electra was filmed between 1961 and 1962, and Michael Cacoyiannis is responsible for both the scenario and direction. The film’s music is composed by Mikis Theodorakis, the sets and costumes are designed by Spyros Vasileiou and the photo editing is performed by Walter Lassally. The main protagonists are Eirini Papa (Electra), Yiannis Fertis (Orestes), Aleka Katseli (Clytemnestra), Phoebos Razis (Aegisthos), Notis Pergialis (farmer) and Manos Katrakis (school teacher). The film participates in the 1962 Cannes Film Festival and wins the annual ‘best film remake’ award; it receives a sound quality award from the Supreme Technical Committee for French cinema, and also a special award from the International Youth Association. In the 1962 Thessaloniki Festival, it received the ‘best Greek film of the year’ award, the director’s award, the first and second female actress’ awards, the second male actor’s award and the ‘best music’ award. It was awarded a Value Diploma at the 1962 Edinburgh Festival and a special film award at the Acapulco Festival that same year. In 1963, it received the O. Selznick Silver Daphne award at the Berlin Festival and the Ferminal 1963 award in Belgium. In 1964, it received an award from the Cinema and Film Critique Press Association in Antwerp (Kolonias 1995, 44).

Cacoyiannis’ aim is to create a new film based on Euripides’ Electra, not to direct a remake of the ancient drama, adapted to the conventions of the film industry. His intentions ultimately lead to a loose restructure of the original play, which initially attracts negative criticism from film commentators. Cacoyiannis does not follow the ‘time and place’ framework of the original drama; instead, he changes the episodes’ order, he adds or subtracts actors in various scenes, he reduces the narration sections, he replaces some long monologues with live scenes and he breaks down the plot in different sets (e.g. in Agamemnon’s bath chamber, in the farmer’s house, in the Mycenaean palace, in the Argive plain, etc.). Time is not manipulated through flashbacks; instead, the director expands the play’s timeline relative to the original drama and presents the events in linear succession, divided into three interconnected sections. In the first section, the viewer learns about past events and foresees Agamemnon’s assassination, when Orestes and Electra are still children. In the second section, the viewer sees the fake wedding between Electra and the poor farmer, as well as Electra’s arrival at Agamemnon’s tomb. Both events are absent in Euripides’ original play. In the third section, which coincides with the events presented by Euripides, the viewer sees Orestes’ arrival in Mycenae, the recognition scene between Orestes and Electra, the murders of Aegisthus and Clytemnestra, and the play's final scene, in which the two main protagonists escape together. The events described in the third section last for one day, not only limiting the film’s plot but also complying with Aristotle’s 24-hour rule for ancient drama. The appearance of the Dioscuroi for the resolution of the plot does not take place, as opposed to Euripides’ original scenario, where the Dioscuroi appear as part of the Deus ex Machina convention. Despite the above changes, Euripides’ original views and philosophical approaches remain unchanged; instead, Cacoyiannis harmonises with Euripides: he presents his protagonists as diachronic, eternal, self-motivated and independent of any form of divine volition (Delvedouri 2006/7, 25-30).

The most characteristic feature of Cacoyiannis’ Electra is the neatness of its sets, which cannot be tied to a specific period and therefore make the film diachronic (Christie 2003, 241). Cacoyiannis presents a timeless drama by stripping it of conventions that could limit it to a specific space and time framework. Of course, there are many features that are ‘borrowed’ from the Greek antiquity, such as Agamemnon’s Archaic body armour, the frequent use of profile shots, which remind of ancient pottery representations, the stretched eyebrows of Clytemnestra and her Trojan escorts, which are also encountered in Minoan frescoes, the Cyclopean Walls of Mycenae, the sphenoid-like fonts listing the film’s participants, and many others. With a second, more thorough analysis, however, the viewer also detects daily features that express Hellenicity without temporal constraints. Such timeless features are the bright sunlight, the olive trees, the harvesting of the olives by whipping, the daily clothes of the farmers, the black-dressed women, the wooden carriages, the donkeys, the lime-painted white huts, the ceramic water containers, the shepherd with his flock, the idea of hospitality (offered to Orestes and Pylades by both the farmer and Aegisthus), the local feast, the vineyards, the wine press, the traditional roasted lamb and many others.

The film is significantly different from the mainstream productions of the 1960s, not only in its theme but also in its means of artistic expression. There is an emphasis on visual representation of natural scenery (e.g., sunny versus cloudy skies, dry landscapes, hills covered in olive trees), while the actors deliberately avoid oral communication and most often interact through intense gestures, expressive eye contact, and dynamic body postures. It is important to note that during the film’s first 17 minutes, there is not even a single word by the actors. Instead, the protagonists ‘speak’ with their bodies; they exchange glances full of meaning and express their emotional cosmos through their body postures and facial contractions. In relation to the latter, it can be argued that Cacoyiannis liberates ancient Greek drama from the constraints of the theatrical face mask. The actors’ stylisation is combined with meaningful body postures, while the direct intersection of their gazes is deliberately avoided to emphasise their introversion. With this technique, Cacoyiannis stresses the deeper emotional struggles of his protagonists and implies their psychological fluctuations.

Regarding his camera angles, Cacoyiannis prefers close-ups that focus on facial expressions. The camera is often placed low to emphasise the protagonist’s persona (e.g., in Agamemnon’s arrival scene in Argos), with the protagonist filmed from below. On other occasions, the camera is placed high, and the actors are filmed from above to diminish their personas (e.g., Clytemnestra’s dead body in the farmer’s house is shown from the ceiling).

The camera’s manipulations allow natural features into the frame, which contribute to the plot’s evolution (Moschovakis 1995, 32); when combined with the right montage, these features enhance the dramatic conditions characterising specific scenes. For example, the night’s darkness contributes to the conspiratorial arrival of Orestes at Argos; the bright and sunny scenery is gradually shadowed by dark clouds on the day of Clytemnestra’s assassination; the rustling of the leaves, the flying of the birds and the whining of the horses accompany the scene of Clytemnestra’s murder. The play of light and shadow on the Mycenaean walls helps Electra emerge from the darkness and present herself to her mother; it is the first scene in which Electra’s hair is cut short, symbolising her mourning for her father’s death.

When the dead body of Aegisthus is brought in front of Electra, there are light-bearers with torches, who dissolve the night’s darkness. This specific scene resembles the Christian Epitaph custom and also operates at a symbolic level. In general, the film’s symbolism is plentiful and acts subconsciously on the viewer’s mind. Various sounds, such as the running water in Agamemnon’s bath chamber and the clash of the sword against child-Orestes’ shield, allow viewers to use their imagination and actively connect the events to the film’s scenes. Natural and abrupt sounds are also used to imply the crimes taking place in the story; this convention follows the rules of ancient Greek drama, where bloody events do not occur on stage (Delvedouri 2006/7, 29). In the author’s own view, however, the scene of Agamemnon’s murder is particularly brutal, while the visual effect of brutality is supplemented by the picture of running blood on the bathroom floor.

The film’s music is an artistic composition by Mikis Theodorakis. It is especially interesting that the film’s songs are not accompanied by any musical instruments; instead, the music is polyphonic and chanted by a chorus of black-dressed women. The wedding song during Electra’s arrival in her new home reminds one of folk mourning chants. It can be broken down into two parts. The first two verses are sung solo by the head of the chorus and carry sad messages: “The sun looked upon the Earth from his golden chariot and decided to change his course when he realised the injustice” (1). The third verse is sung by the entire chorus and predicts Electa’s salvation through the resurrection symbolism: “But the day will come, this good day, this time of celebration; the mountains will grow green, and the earth will satisfy its thirst”.

In other parts of the film, for example, during the feast organised by Aegisthus, musical instruments appear, producing ancient-like sounds (e.g., drums, flutes, harps). The Pontus War Dance conveys a sense of Hellenicity that extends to the duel between Orestes and Aegisthus. The poetic character of the film's music is also noted in relation to Electra’s mourning chant, when she visits her father’s grave: “Can you hear me, sweet father, from the other side? My shaved hair has been shaved for you. For you I tear my chicks with my own fingernails”. The traditional mourning chant (threnos = θρήνος), the use of a tripartite iambic 15-syllable verse and the myrtle twig on Agamemnon’s grave are excellent expressions of timeless Hellenicity.

The function of the chorus in the film remake differs from its original function in ancient drama. Cacoyiannis stylises the chorus members and places them still while chanting; this approach cancels the rhythmic motion and rhythmic recitation that have been suggested by contemporary German prototypes for ancient drama remakes (Moschovakis 1995, 32).

In relation to his use of symbolism, Cacoyiannis prefers optical motifs that reflect the relationships among his protagonists and foreshadow future events. The ‘hand-motif’ (Delvedouri , 2006/7, 31) appears in the film’s most critical moments: Clytemnestra’s hand slips into Aegisthus’ hand a little before Agamemnon’s assassination; it slips again off little Electra’s shoulder, who suspects Clytemnestra’s plot and stares at her mother’s hand full of suspicion; a little later, Agamemnon’s hand, which is covered in blood, slips on bath chamber’s floor. In a similar sense, the ‘sword-motif’ is used to imply death: Agamemnon’s sword in the hands of Orestes is a prediction of the murders that are about to follow; the sword, with which Aegisthus enters into a competition with Orestes, as well as the clashing swords of the dancers during the festival, both imply the death of Aegisthus (Moschovakis 1995, 31-2).

Although the story is inspired by mythological events, Cacoyiannis sees it as an opportunity to express modern social reflections. Electra’s dynamic personality, the Freudian passion between father and daughter, and the conflict between maternal love, hatred, and guilt are all used to foreground the tragic character of the film’s female protagonist. A little before Clytemnestra enters the farmer’s house to be murdered by her own son, Electra, who is an accessory to the murder, subconsciously warns her: “Mother! Be careful”. It is perhaps the same subconscious reaction noted again in the 1966 film Stella, where Giorgos Fountas warns Melina Mercouri: “Stella, go away…I’m holding a knife”. Such scenes highlight the tension between moral duty and human love.

Finally, Cacoyiannis sees his film as an opportunity to denounce the government’s repressive mechanisms and censorship practices, which were common in the 1960s: he depicts Argos as a police-controlled country, where violence, fear and repression guarantee public order. For example, two peasants comment that Clytemnestra tried to murder Electra when she was little, because she feared the people’s reaction. The gathering of the two peasants is interrupted by a soldier, who represents the vigilant eyes of law and order. Then, the mourning scene of the female chorus, addressed to Electra, is suddenly interrupted by the arrival of a cavalryman, who dissolves their gathering. Throughout the film, the viewer notices the ‘folk-revolution’ motif in the background, a motif popular in many other cultural expressions during the 1960s. In that sense, it appears likely that Cacoyiannis silently promotes his own social critique of any form of centrally-regulated totalitarianism.

Summary and conclusions

The most popular Greek films during the 1960s were melodramas, prank comedies, and musicals. These are commercially produced by large film companies for a wide audience and are characterised by standardised plot motifs, popular film stars in characteristic roles and the projection of standardised social ideologies. During the same period, alternative directors emerged, such as Michael Cacoyiannis, who represent what is nowadays described as ‘qualitative artistic popularity’. Such directors produce films that deviate from the norm in terms of artistic music, artistic image representation, script originality, social critique, and the promotion of new ideologies. Cacoyiannis’ Electra is the only one who received three international awards at the 1962 Cannes Festival and six domestic awards at the same year’s Thessaloniki Festival. Electra is a loose remake of the eponymous tragedy by Euripides, which Cacoyiannis adapts to its time and place, making it a timeless drama. Furthermore, Cacoyiannis departs from the original play in its long monologue sequences, its use of the chorus, and its final plot resolution. One of the film’s main features, even though it is shown indirectly, is the promotion of Hellenicity through timeless symbolism, as seen in the actors’ costumes and the external scenery. The film promotes innovative means of artistic expression, such as the music by Mikis Theodorakis, the communication of the protagonists through glances and gestures, the scenes of prolonged silence, the use of intense body motions and facial contractions, and finally, the excellent camera manipulations by Walter Lassaly. In relation to the latter, the film is dominated by close-ups from various filming angles; there is frequent use of profile shots; camera focusing on symbolic motifs; participation of natural features in the frame; and participation of natural elements, such as light, shadows and sounds, during the film’s main events. Finally, Cacoyiannis offers modern reflections on the course of Freudian passion, the dynamic nature of the female character, and the concepts of totalitarianism and folk revolution.

Bibliography

Athanasatou, Y., 2002, ‘Greek post-war cinema’, in Konstantopoulou, D. (ed.) Modern Greek Theatre (1600-1940) – Cinema, Volume II, Greek Cinema, Patra: Greek Open University, 75-120.
Christie, I. (ed.), 2003, Cinemythology: The Greek Myths in Worldwide Cinema, Thessaloniki: The Thessaloniki Film Festival Press
Delvedouri, E.-A., 2006/7, ‘A tragedy and a film’, in The Electra Cycle, printed programme of the Megaron of Music in Athens, Athens: Megaro Mousikis Athinon.
Goudelis, T., 1995, ‘Three tragedies by Euripides from Cacoyiannis’, in Kolonias, M. (ed.) Michael Cacoyiannis, Athens: Kastaniotis, 57-69.
Kolonias, M., 1995, ‘Electra in Cannes’, in Kolonias, M. (ed.) Michael Cacoyiannis, Athens: Kastaniotis, 144.
Moschovakis, A., 1995, ‘Michael Cacoyiannis: from ethography to tragedy’, in Kolonias, M. (ed.) Michael Cacoyiannis, Athens: Kastaniotis, 17-43.

Filmography

Cacoyiannis, M., 1961/2, Electra, Greece: Finos Film.

Notes

1. The verse in Greek: “Μα θα ’ρθει η μέρα, η μέρα η καλή - η ώρα θα γιορτάσει - θα πρασινίσουν τα βουνά - η γης θα ξεδιψάσει”.
2. The verse in Greek: “Μα θα ’ρθει η μέρα, η μέρα η καλή - η ώρα θα γιορτάσει - θα πρασινίσουν τα βουνά - η γης θα ξεδιψάσει”.
3. The verse in Greek: “Μ’ ακούς πατέρα μου γλυκέ που ’σαι στον κάτω κόσμο - Τα κουρεμένα μου μαλλιά για ‘σένα τα ’χω κόψει. Για ‘σένα με τα νύχια μου τα μάγουλά μου σκίζω”.